Why in news?

Banaras Hindu University (BHU) has recently examined 22 boxes of artefacts stored for nearly 70 years, uncovering over 10,000 artefacts — including painted black pottery believed to be 3,000 years old.

These were excavated from Rajghat, one of the oldest known settlements in the Varanasi region, between 1957 and 1969. Earlier in August, experts had also opened a box containing a human skeleton recovered from the same site.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Where Is Rajghat, and Why Does It Matter?
• The History of Excavation at Rajghat
• What Have the Artefacts Revealed?
• Archaeology vs Mythology: An Important Distinction
• Why Is BHU Documenting These Artefacts Now?
• The Human Skeleton: A First-Time Analysis

Where Is Rajghat, and Why Does It Matter?

• Rajghat today is a neighbourhood in eastern Varanasi, but the archaeological site specifically refers to an ancient settlement on the city's northeastern outskirts, near the confluence of the Ganga and Varana rivers.
• According to archaeologists, Rajghat is identified as the capital of the Kashi Janapada.
  • Janapadas were territorial kingdoms that emerged during the later Vedic period; some grew into larger mahajanapadas by the 6th century BCE.
  • Early Buddhist and Jain texts list Kashi as one of 16 mahajanapadas of the Indo-Gangetic plain.
• The wider Kashi region has several excavated ancient settlements — including Aktha, Ramnagar, Sarnath, and Rajghat.
• Various research concluded that while Sarnath developed as a pilgrimage site, Rajghat grew into the main urban centre, with other settlements serving as peripheral, rural areas.

The History of Excavation at Rajghat

• The site first came to attention in 1940, when a railway contractor found archaeological remains while extending Kashi Railway Station.
• Archaeologists conducted a trial excavation for the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) later that year.
• Full-scale excavations began in 1957, led by A K Narain and colleagues from BHU's Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology.
• Conducted in four phases over 12 years, these excavations unearthed the site's oldest layer, containing pre-Northern Black Polished Ware (pre-NBPW) pottery — associated with an early Iron Age phase.
• This evidence dated the settlement's origins to around 800 BCE.
• In the early 2000s, archaeologists re-excavated the site to verify this dating, digging down from the Kushana period (1st century BCE–3rd century CE) layers.
• Scientific analysis subsequently confirmed the 800 BCE date for Rajghat's oldest layer.

What Have the Artefacts Revealed?

• The 10,000+ artefacts include a wide range of objects: sculptures, ancient coins, tools, stamp seals, and items made of copper, ivory, and bone.
• According to experts, the seals and sealings are the most significant finds — many carry Greek inscriptions, while others bear the names of administrative units and officials.
• Additional finds include ivory and iron objects, punch-marked coins, and terracotta figurines.
• These artefacts are valuable for tracing the development of human civilisation in the Indian subcontinent.

Archaeology vs Mythology: An Important Distinction

• Analysts caution against conflating mythological antiquity with archaeological evidence.
• They note that the well-known religious association between Varanasi, Shiva, and the Ganga is actually a product of late medieval texts — not necessarily reflected in the archaeological record.
• Archaeological dating, based on material remains, places settlements in the Varanasi region as far back as 1800 BCE.
• This gap between textual and archaeological dating must be kept in mind while reconstructing Varanasi's history —a general tendency is to describe important sites as simply "pracheen" (ancient) without precise evidence.

Why Is BHU Documenting These Artefacts Now?

• This documentation effort is part of the centenary celebrations of BHU's Department of Ancient Indian History, Culture and Archaeology.
• The goal is to preserve a century of departmental work and make it accessible to future researchers — with plans for a future museum also underway.
  • Documentation began in January 2026 and has recorded about 4,000 artefacts so far.
• While excavation reports were already public and available to researchers, this marks the first organised, comprehensive documentation effort.

The Human Skeleton: A First-Time Analysis

• The human skeleton recovered from Rajghat is the only artefact opened for the first time during this exercise.
• When Professor Narain excavated it in the 1960s, technology to analyse human remains did not exist.
• With modern techniques like DNA sampling and analysis, researchers now hope to learn more about the age, ancestry, and lifestyle of the people who inhabited the region in antiquity.

Conclusion

The renewed examination of Rajghat's 1950s-60s excavation trove offers a rare opportunity to scientifically reconstruct Varanasi's ancient urban history, distinct from its mythological narrative.

With modern techniques like DNA analysis now available, these decades-old artefacts — including a long-sealed human skeleton — could yield fresh insights into one of the world's oldest continually inhabited cities.

Why in news?

India and China held their first-ever Corps Commander-level talks in Arunachal Pradesh recently, at the Wacha-Damai Border Personnel Meeting Point.

The meeting marks a significant expansion of military dialogue beyond the Ladakh sector, coming amid reports of tension in the Taksing area of the Upper Subansiri district, and just days before India hosts the BRICS Summit.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Where and Who: The Meeting Details
• Why This Meeting Is Significant?
• The Immediate Trigger: Tension in Taksing
• The Broader Diplomatic Context
• The Bigger Picture: BRICS and India-China Ties
• Expert Perspective: Caution Amid Progress

Where and Who: The Meeting Details

• Held at Wacha-Damai, India's easternmost Border Personnel Meeting Point, located in the Kibithoo sector, Arunachal Pradesh.
• Led by Lieutenant General Girish Kalia, Commander of the 3 Corps (Spear Corps), headquartered at Rangapahar near Dimapur, Nagaland.
• The Indian Army has two Corps formations covering Arunachal Pradesh: the Tezpur-based 4 Corps and the Rangapahar-based 3 Corps.

Why This Meeting Is Significant?

• Until now, Corps Commander-level talks between India and China had been held almost exclusively at the Chushul-Moldo Border Meeting Point in eastern Ladakh — the mechanism became especially important after the June 2020 Galwan Valley clashes.
• India and China have held 23 rounds of such talks in Ladakh so far, with the most recent (23rd) round in October 2025.
• This marks the first time the mechanism has been extended to the Eastern Sector (Arunachal Pradesh) — indicating that both sides are building additional channels to manage border tensions beyond the traditional Ladakh focus.

The Immediate Trigger: Tension in Taksing

• The talks come amid reports of Chinese activity and alleged incursions in the Taksing area of Upper Subansiri district.
• According to sources, Indian troops remain deployed in large numbers in the area to prevent any escalation.
• Notably, this local tension has persisted despite two high-level diplomatic engagements since July.

The Broader Diplomatic Context

• This meeting did not happen in isolation — it follows a series of recent India-China engagements:
  • August 6: 36th meeting of the Working Mechanism for Consultation and Coordination (WMCC) on India-China Border Affairs.
  • August 25-26: 25th round of Special Representatives (SR) talks on the Boundary Question in Beijing, with NSA Ajit Doval representing India and Wang Yi (Office of the Central Commission for Foreign Affairs) leading China's delegation.
• At the SR-level talks, both sides signed an eight-point outcome document, agreeing to:
  • Establish two additional Border Personnel Meeting Points — one in the Eastern Sector (under 3 Corps) and one in the Central Sector.
  • Set up new hotlines to strengthen communication and confidence-building measures.

The Bigger Picture: BRICS and India-China Ties

• The talks come just days before India hosts the 18th BRICS Summit in New Delhi (September 12-13, 2026), which Chinese President Xi Jinping is expected to attend.
  • Xi last visited India in October 2019 for the Mamallapuram informal summit.
• New Delhi and Beijing have been working to restore ties that deteriorated sharply after the 2020 Ladakh military standoff.
• A key turning point came when PM Modi and President Xi met on the sidelines of the BRICS Summit in Kazan, Russia (October 2024) — talks that led to the disengagement of troops from friction points like Depsang Plains and Demchok, following a formal patrolling agreement.

Expert Perspective: Caution Amid Progress

• Experts described the Corps Commander talks and the new military hotlines as positive developments. However, they cautioned that:
  • The boundary issue remains unsettled.
  • Differing perceptions of the LAC, infrastructure construction, and force multipliers on both sides create a "possibility of friction and escalation".
  • This requires vigilance, credible capabilities, clear agreements, and consistent adherence.
• Separately, Army Chief General Dhiraj Seth recently visited 3 Corps headquarters to review operational readiness and combat preparedness along the frontier.

Conclusion

The first Corps Commander-level talks in Arunachal Pradesh signal a maturing, multi-sector approach to India-China border management, building on momentum from recent SR-level talks and the Kazan disengagement agreement.

Yet, as experts caution, differing LAC perceptions and continued incidents like the Taksing tension show that durable peace along the frontier will require sustained vigilance alongside diplomatic engagement.

Context:

• Ahead of the 18th BRICS Summit in New Delhi (September 12-13, 2026), Chinese Ambassador to India Xu Feihong outlined China's vision for strengthening BRICS cooperation.
• Using the acronym "POWER," he lays out five commitments he believes should guide the grouping as it works to empower the Global South.

P — Principle: Upholding a Rules-Based World Order

• The world is undergoing rapid transformation, marked by deepening multipolarity, economic globalisation, and the collective rise of the Global South — alongside rising hegemonism and power politics.
• BRICS must uphold the UN Charter's principles: sovereign equality, non-interference in internal affairs, and peaceful dispute settlement, to prevent a slide back into "might is right" global politics.
• The Chinese Ambassador references President Xi Jinping's vision of a "community with a shared future for humanity," along with China's Global Security Initiative and Global Governance Initiative, as China's contributions to addressing shared global challenges.

O — Openness: Resisting Protectionism

• With the world economy facing sluggish recovery and rising protectionism — including tariff barriers and supply chain disruptions — there is need for BRICS to:
  • Uphold the multilateral trading system, with the WTO at its core.
  • Safeguard principles like most-favoured-nation treatment.
  • Deepen cooperation in energy, minerals, infrastructure, and industrial supply chains.

W — Win-Win: Development at the Centre

• BRICS should keep development central to its agenda, accelerating progress on the UN Sustainable Development Goals and building consensus on a post-2030 global development agenda.
• This includes ensuring Global South countries participate as equals in international cooperation.
• On the economic front, the ambassador calls for:
  • Stronger macroeconomic policy coordination
  • Greater trade and investment facilitation
  • Expanded local currency and cross-border payment cooperation
  • A more resilient global food and agriculture system

E — Engine: BRICS as a Growth Driver

• BRICS nations collectively account for nearly half the world's population, about 30% of global economic output, and one-fifth of global trade.
• Citing IMF projections, the ambassador notes greater BRICS growth is expected to be nearly three times faster than the G7 by 2028.
• To harness this, he calls for deeper cooperation in digital economy, smart manufacturing, and AI integration across sectors like health, agriculture and education — highlighting China's own China-BRICS AI Development and Cooperation Center and New Quality Productive Forces Research Center.

R — Responsibility: Sustaining Cooperation Through Leadership Transitions

• With India and China set to hold the BRICS rotating presidency in successive years, the author emphasises the importance of sound coordination between the two countries.
• This is necessary to ensure steady progress of BRICS cooperation and safeguard developing nations' shared interests.

A Note on China-India Ties

• The piece highlights recent positive developments in bilateral relations under President Xi Jinping and PM Narendra Modi — including the resumption of five direct flight routes and the reopening of border trade after a six-year suspension.
• China expresses hope for translating this momentum into stable, sustained cooperation, and extends an invitation to host the next BRICS Summit.

Conclusion

• China's "POWER" framework reflects its vision for a more multipolar, development-centric BRICS, emphasising openness, equitable growth, and sustained India-China coordination — positioning the grouping as a pivotal engine for reshaping global governance in favour of the Global South.

About Valles Marineris:

• Valles Marineris, or Mariner Valley, is a vast system of interconnected canyons on the planet Mars.
• The system was discovered during, and named for, the Mariner 9 mission in 1971.
• The canyons extend in an east-west direction for roughly 4,000 km just south of the equator.
• By comparison, Earth’s natural wonder, the Grand Canyon, is only 446 km long.
• It is one of the larger canyons in the solar system.
• It spans about 20 percent of the entire circumference of Mars.
• Individual canyons are typically 200 km across and have walls 2–5 km high.
• At the centre of the system, several canyons merge to form a depression 600 km across and 9 km deep.
• The canyon system contains a number of different features that give clues to its formation.
  • Some of the canyon walls appear to be fault scarps that formed as a result of crustal movement along faults radiating from the Tharsis rise, an enormous volcanic bulge to the northwest.
  • Erosion, however, has also played a significant role in canyon formation, as indicated by deep gullies cut in the walls.
  • In places, the canyons contain thick sedimentary sequences that may have been deposited in lakes that formerly occupied the canyons.
  • These lakes later may have drained catastrophically to the east, where there is evidence of large floods.

About Ganymede:

• It is the largest of Jupiter’s satellites and of all the satellites in the solar system.
• It is the only moon known to possess its own magnetic field.
• Discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610, Ganymede's name is derived from a figure in Roman mythology associated with the god Jupiter.
• It has a diameter of about 5,270 km, which makes it larger than the planet Mercury.
• It is situated about one million kilometers from Jupiter, exhibiting synchronous rotation, which means it always shows the same face to the planet.
• Ganymede’s relatively low density of 1.93 grams per cubic cm indicates that its composition is roughly half rock and half water ice by mass.
• Ganymede has a core of metallic iron, which is followed by a layer of rock that is topped off by a crust of mostly ice that is very thick.
• There are also a number of bumps on Ganymede's surface, which may be rock formations.
• It is believed that Ganymede has a saltwater ocean below its surface.
• A thin atmosphere surrounds Ganymede, containing hydrogen and possibly other compounds like carbon dioxide.
• Ongoing exploration, including missions like the recently launched Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE), aims to deepen our understanding of Ganymede's geology, potential oceanic layers, and its role in the broader context of the solar system's formation and evolution.

About Exercise Veer Guardian:

• It is a bilateral air exercise between the Indian Air Force and the Japanese Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF).
• The first edition of the exercise was held in 2023 at Hyakuri Air Base, Japan.
• It seeks to enhance interoperability, operational synergy, and mutual understanding, reinforcing the enduring bonds of friendship between India and Japan.
• Ex Veer Guardian 2026:
  • Location: Jodhpur, Rajasthan
  • It will focus on improving the tactical proficiency of participating units and deepening mutual understanding between the two air forces.
  • The training will include air-combat manoeuvring, giving personnel from both countries an opportunity to train together in complex operational scenarios.
  • Japan is participating with three F-2A fighter aircraft from the 8th Air Wing at Tsuiki Air Base, along with approximately 110 personnel.
  • This is the first time that the Mitsubishi F-2 fighter aircraft will participate in an exercise in India.

About Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC):

• It is India’s premier nuclear research facility.
• It is headquartered in Trombay, Mumbai, Maharashtra.
• It operates under the Department of Atomic Energy, which is directly overseen by the Prime Minister of India.
• The statutory framework governing its activities is the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, which vests in the central government exclusive control over atomic minerals, fissile material, and nuclear research, superseding the earlier Atomic Energy Act of 1948.
• It is a multi-disciplinary research centre with extensive infrastructure for advanced research and development covering the entire spectrum of nuclear science and engineering and related areas.
• BARC is the research backbone of the Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCIL), which currently operates all nuclear power reactors in India.
• History:
  • Homi Jehangir Bhabha conceived the nuclear program in India.
  • Bhabha established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) to carry out nuclear science research in 1945.
  • Bhabha established the Atomic Energy Establishment, Trombay (AEET), in January 1954 for a multidisciplinary research program essential for the ambitious nuclear program of India.
  • After the death of Bhabha in 1966, AEET was renamed Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC).
• Functions:
  • It is engaged in research with the objective of generating knowledge and techniques for nuclear power production, the advancement of nuclear science, the use of radioisotopes in industry, health, and agriculture, and research in frontier areas of science and technology.
  • It is responsible for the design and development of nuclear reactors, fuel cycle technologies, radiation protection, and safety systems.
  • BARC also plays an important role in nuclear education and training. It offers various training programs for scientists, engineers, and technicians in the areas of nuclear science and technology.

About Thismia daemona:

• It is a new species of leafless flowering plant.
• It was discovered from Thong Pha Phum National Park in western Thailand.
• It belongs to Thismia, a genus of tiny species also known as "fairy lanterns."
  • The distinctive quality of these plants is that they lack chlorophyll and do not carry out photosynthesis.
  • Instead, they produce their food from fungi beneath the earth's surface and also remain concealed beneath layers of leaf litter for nearly their entire lives.
• Thismia daemona plant was found growing at an elevation of approximately 1,000 meters, an unusually high and seasonally dry setting for this genus.
• Its unusual, almost supernatural appearance inspired its name: Thismia daemona, the "devil flower."
  • Its flower is mostly black and topped with horn-like appendages that rise from a dome-shaped "miter."
  • Bright reddish-orange patches near the base resemble glowing eyes, adding to its demon-like appearance.
• It is known from fewer than 50 individuals and has therefore been provisionally assessed as Critically Endangered.

About Bar Council of India:

• It is a statutory body created by Parliament to regulate and represent the Indian bar.
• It was established under the Advocates Act, 1961, based on the recommendations of the All India Bar Committee.
• Objective: Its main objective is safeguarding the rights, interests, and privileges of advocates throughout India.
• Functions of Bar Council of India:
  • Regulatory: It performs the regulatory function by prescribing standards of professional conduct and etiquette and by exercising disciplinary jurisdiction over the bar.
  • Setting Standard: It also sets standards for legal education and grants recognition to Universities whose degrees in law will serve as qualification for enrolment as an advocate.
  • It conducts the All India Bar Examination (AIBE) to grant a ‘Certificate of Practice’ to advocates practising law in India.
  • BCI also funds welfare schemes for economically weaker and physically handicapped advocates.
  • It also recognizes on a reciprocal basis foreign qualifications in law obtained outside India for admission as an advocate under this Act.
• Composition of Bar Council of India:
  • It comprises members elected from each State Bar Council, the Attorney General of India, and the Solicitor of India, who serve as members automatically. 
  • The members of the State Bar Councils are elected for five years.
  • The Council has the power to choose its own Chairman and Vice-Chairman from among its members, and they serve for two years.

About Anak Krakatau Volcano:

• Location: It is a stratovolcano located in the Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra in Indonesia.
• It is a part of the Ring of Fire, a chain of volcanoes in the Pacific Ocean. 
• History:
  • Anak Krakatau, or "child of Krakatau", is linked to the famed Krakatau, whose 1883 eruption triggered a period of global cooling.
  • It emerged from the sea in 1927.
  • Over the following years, frequent strombolian eruptions resulted in the growth of the volcano. 
  • It sits above multiple magma chambers.
  • In 2018, an eruption led to the collapse of the southwestern flank of the volcano, with the resulting landslide generating a tsunami.

What is Stratovolcano?

• It is also called a composite volcano, typically a steep-sided, symmetrical cones built of alternating layers of lava flows, volcanic ash, and other eruptive products.
• They are typically found above subduction zones, and they are often part of large volcanically active regions, such as the Ring of Fire that frames much of the Pacific Ocean.
• Stratovolcanoes comprise the largest percentage (~60%) of the Earth’s individual volcanoes.
• They are formed from viscous, sticky lava that does not flow easily.
• The lava therefore builds up around the vent, forming a volcano with steep sides. Stratovolcanoes are more likely to produce explosive eruptions due to gas building up in the viscous magma.