About Dirac Medal:

• It was first awarded in 1985.
• It is given in honor of P.A.M. Dirac, one of the greatest physicists of the 20th century.
• It is awarded annually on Dirac's birthday, August 8, to scientists who have made significant contributions to theoretical physics.
• It is awarded by the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP).
• Selection Process: An international committee of distinguished scientists selects the winners from a list of nominated candidates.
• The Dirac Medal is not awarded to Nobel Laureates, Fields Medallists, or Wolf Foundation Prize winners, although several past Dirac medallists later went on to receive those honours.
• Cash Prize: The Medalist also receives a prize of US $5,000.
• Deepak Dhar is also the second Indian winner of the Dirac Medal; the first was string theorist Ashoke Sen.
• Dhar is known for his work on a concept called Abelian sandpiles.

What is International Centre for Theoretical Physics?

• It is an international research institute for physical and mathematical sciences.
• The centre was founded in 1964.
• It operates under a tripartite agreement between the Italian Government, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
• ICTP is a UNESCO Category 1 Institute.
• It is located in Trieste, Italy.

Why in news?

The Union government has filed a counter-affidavit in the Supreme Court opposing petitions that seek to extend the "creamy layer" exclusion — currently applicable to Other Backward Classes (OBCs) — to Scheduled Caste (SC) and Scheduled Tribe (ST) reservations.

The government has argued that historical disadvantage suffered by SCs and STs cannot be equated with the economic backwardness criterion used for OBCs.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background: How the Issue Arose
• Understanding the Concepts: Sub-Categorisation vs Creamy Layer
• The Centre's Legal Arguments
• Where Sub-Categorisation Has Actually Been Used

Background: How the Issue Arose?

• The current round of litigation traces back to the Supreme Court's August 2024 Davinder Singh judgment, delivered by a seven-judge Bench headed by then Chief Justice D.Y. Chandrachud.
• That verdict recognised the heterogeneity within SC and ST communities and permitted State governments to sub-categorise within these lists so that more backward groups are not crowded out by relatively advanced ones.
• In his opinion, Justice B.R. Gavai went further, suggesting the government seriously consider a creamy layer exclusion for SC/STs too, similar to what exists for OBCs.
• This observation triggered a debate around this issue.
• The Present Petition Before the Court
  • The present petition, filed by advocate Ashwini Kumar Upadhyay, alleges "elite capture" of SC/ST reservation benefits by affluent families, seeking income-based exclusions across all reserved categories.
  • It cites four of seven Davinder Singh judges who favoured extending the creamy layer principle to SC/STs.

Understanding the Concepts: Sub-Categorisation vs Creamy Layer

• These two tools are often discussed together but serve different purposes:
  • Sub-categorisation divides an existing reservation quota into smaller shares within a category, ensuring more backward groups get guaranteed representation. It does not deny reservation to anyone; it only redistributes the existing pie.
  • Creamy layer exclusion identifies individuals or families who have already achieved sufficient social and economic advancement and excludes them entirely from availing reservation benefits.
• The creamy layer concept originated in the 1992 Indra Sawhney judgment, which upheld OBC reservations based on the Mandal Commission report.
• Crucially, that judgment explicitly stated the creamy layer test has no relevance for SCs and STs, since their backwardness stems from untouchability and social exclusion rather than economic status alone.

The Centre's Legal Arguments

• The government's affidavit rests on several strands of reasoning.
• First, it draws a distinction in the basis of identification: SCs are marked by "historical disadvantage" from untouchability, while STs are identified by distinct culture, geographical isolation and backwardness — neither is an economic classification like OBC status.
• Second, it cites settled precedent: the 2008 Ashoka Kumar Thakur case confirmed creamy layer does not apply to SC/STs, and the 2005 E.V. Chinnaiah judgment held that any such exclusion, if ever required, could only be introduced by Parliament, not the courts.
• Third, the Centre invokes separation of powers. Under Articles 341 and 342, only the President notifies SC/ST lists, and any inclusion or exclusion requires an Act of Parliament — no other authority, including State governments or courts, can alter these lists.
• On this basis, the government contends that the petition effectively seeks a writ of mandamus asking courts to direct executive policy, which is impermissible since reservation policy requires a holistic review and empirical data, not judicial intervention.
• It has also questioned the petition's maintainability under Article 32, arguing no fundamental right violation has been shown.
• Notably, the Centre has left open a conditional pathway: any change to reservation policy would require a "holistic review and thorough empirical study" of socio-economic data — but such a review must be initiated by the government, not ordered by the judiciary.

Where Sub-Categorisation Has Actually Been Used?

• Unlike creamy layer, sub-categorisation has already been implemented at the State level — for instance, Telangana, Haryana and Punjab have sub-classified their SC category, while Mizoram has done so for STs.
• At the Central level, the clearest example is the sub-division of the ST quota in Eklavya Model Residential Schools to ensure representation for Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs).
• Meanwhile, the Centre has still not acted on the 2017 G. Rohini Commission report on OBC sub-categorisation, nor made its national stance clear.

Conclusion

The debate underscores a fundamental distinction between economic and historical-social backwardness in India's reservation framework.

While sub-categorisation strengthens equitable distribution within categories, the Centre insists creamy layer exclusion is constitutionally and legally confined to OBCs, leaving any change to Parliament's exclusive domain.

Why in news?

Recently, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Pakistan signed the Mecca (Makkah) Joint Defence Agreement in the presence of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman.

The pact declares that an armed attack on any one of the three states will be treated as an attack on all three, marking a significant new trilateral security arrangement in West Asia with direct implications for India.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background: From Bilateral Pact to Trilateral Compact
• What the Pact Actually Covers?
• Why Now: Three Converging Pressures?
• Not Quite a "NATO of the East"
• Global Reactions
• Implications for India

Background: From Bilateral Pact to Trilateral Compact

• The agreement builds on the September 2025 Saudi-Pakistan Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement (SMDA), now widened to include Turkey's NATO-integrated military capabilities and defence-industrial base.
• Notably, as with the original Saudi-Pakistan pact, the full text of the Mecca Agreement has not been made public — only a joint press release describing its collective-deterrence intent has been issued.

What the Pact Actually Covers?

• According to officials, the agreement rests on four pillars:
  • a collective-deterrence clause modelled on Article 51 of the UN Charter,
  • joint training and military exercises,
  • intelligence-sharing mechanisms, and
  • defence-industrial integration — particularly Turkish drone production feeding into Saudi capacity.
• Equally significant is what is missing: there is no integrated command headquarters, no standing joint force, no common budget, and crucially, no explicit nuclear-sharing clause.
• A reported exclusionary clause also denies protection to any member that initiates aggression or allows its territory to be used to attack another state, underlining the pact's defensive character.

Why Now: Three Converging Pressures

• The timing reflects three factors.
• First, the widening US-Israel-Iran confrontation since late February 2026 exposed the limits of relying solely on US security guarantees, especially after Saudi Arabia reportedly depleted a large share of its Patriot missile interceptor stockpile defending against Iranian and Houthi strikes.
• Second, post-October 7 regional recalibration pushed Riyadh to diversify its security partners.
• Third, the three states bring complementary strengths:
  • Saudi financial depth and geography astride the Hormuz and Bab el-Mandeb chokepoints,
  • Turkish NATO-standard doctrine and drone/naval industry (Baykar's Akinci drones, the KAAN fighter programme), and
  • Pakistan's manpower and status as the only nuclear-armed Muslim-majority state.

Not Quite a "NATO of the East"

• Comparisons with NATO's Article 5 are analytically weak. NATO's guarantee rests on a standing treaty organisation, integrated command, and decades of tested doctrine.
• The Mecca pact instead relies on Article 51 self-defence logic, leaves geographic scope and response triggers undefined, and gives each signatory full discretion over whether to respond at all.
• Historically, mutual defence pacts are rarely invoked militarily — Pakistan did not act when Saudi Arabia came under missile and drone attack during the SMDA's first year, choosing mediation over military response.
• Who Is It Really Aimed At?
  • While the pact is framed as deterrence against Iran, its deeper subtext may be directed at Israel.
  • Turkey views Israel as a greater long-term security threat than Iran, especially given clashing interests in post-Assad Syria.
  • Israeli figures, including former PM Naftali Bennett, have already labelled Turkey "the new Iran" and accused it of building a "hostile Sunni axis" with nuclear-armed Pakistan.

Global Reactions

• China has responded with calculated silence, seeing benefit in a stabilised Pakistan-Gulf security architecture that protects its Belt and Road investments without cost.
• Russia is watching with pragmatic neutrality, balancing its Iran partnership against interest in reduced US centrality in the Gulf.
• India has adopted a non-committal closely following" posture.

Implications for India

• For India, the pact signals deeper strategic integration between Saudi Arabia and the Pakistan-Turkey-China axis.
• Turkey has historically been diplomatically hostile to India and has already demonstrated military cooperation with Pakistan, including during the India-Pakistan conflict of April/May 2025.
• Saudi Arabia, in contrast, has invested significantly in ties with India over the past decade despite its closeness to Pakistan.
• However, growing Saudi security dependence may now give Islamabad greater leverage in that relationship, potentially straining India's long-term strategic partnership with Riyadh.
• Three imperatives follow for India to prevent this grouping from consolidating into a coordinated front against Indian interests:
  • Insulating its bilateral relationship with Saudi Arabia (built on energy, expatriate welfare and counterterrorism cooperation) from spillover effects;
  • Intensifying bilateral defence engagement with Gulf states to prevent diplomatic isolation on Kashmir-related narratives; and
  • Calibrating its own extended-neighbourhood posture — Quad engagement, Indian Ocean naval presence, and defence diplomacy with Israel and moderate Arab states.

Conclusion

The Mecca Agreement reflects eroding confidence in single-power security guarantees rather than a fully realised alliance.

For India, the sensible course lies not in alarm but in sustained, calibrated diplomatic engagement — ensuring the pact reshapes West Asia's security map without reshaping India's strategic space.

Context:

• Recurring conflicts in Ukraine, Gaza and West Asia have revived an old debate: is international law losing its relevance?
• Critics point to the failure of international institutions to stop these wars as proof that legal norms no longer restrain state behaviour.
• This article argues that such a conclusion is premature, and that international law continues to function quietly even as headline conflicts suggest otherwise.

Why Wars Do Not Disprove International Law?

• Even states accused of violating international law rarely say the law itself is meaningless.
• Instead, they justify their actions using the very vocabulary of international law — the UN Charter, sovereignty, territorial integrity, self-defence and humanitarian law.
• This tendency to seek legal justification, rather than reject legality altogether, shows that the framework still commands authority.
• UN Secretary-General António Guterres captured this in July 2026 when he told the International Law Commission that international law is under pressure but will prevail.
• Scholars offered a useful explanation for this behaviour: states often comply with international law not out of fear of punishment, but because of the pull created by the treaty regimes they belong to.
  • Compliance is thus less about coercion and more about embedded expectations.

The Quiet, Unnoticed Successes

• Compliance rarely makes news, while violations dominate it. Yet ordinary international life depends on legal cooperation working smoothly:
  • Aircraft cross borders safely because of international aviation regulations;
  • Ships sail the seas under international maritime law;
  • Diplomacy, trade and travel function through thousands of routine legal obligations;
  • Individuals rely on international law daily — passports, consular assistance, air travel and refugee protection are all governed by it.
• Even amid conflict, states keep negotiating new multilateral agreements — the High Seas Treaty, pandemic preparedness efforts and the UN Convention against Cybercrime are recent examples of continued faith in a rules-based system.

Relevance for India and the Global South

• Peace itself is built through legal instruments — ceasefires, peace agreements and negotiated settlements all rest on legal commitments.
• India's Indus Waters Treaty shows that legal frameworks can sustain engagement between states even during political discord.
• For India and the wider Global South, international law matters because it offers smaller and developing states a way to protect their interests through negotiation rather than raw power.
• Shared global challenges — climate change, pandemics, cyberattacks and economic instability — cannot be solved unilaterally and require cooperation rooted in agreed rules.

Acknowledging the Flaws

• International law was never a perfect system. It has long coexisted with power politics and has been criticised for reflecting unequal structures, including the limitations of the UN Security Council.
• But imperfection is not the same as irrelevance — no legal system guarantees full compliance.
• Its real value lies in providing standards against which state conduct can be judged.
• Historically, crises have driven the adaptation of international law, not its collapse.

Conclusion

• International law is strained but not extinguished.
• Its true strength lies not in preventing every violation, but in remaining the shared language states use to justify, contest and eventually resolve their conduct — a framework still indispensable for a just, cooperative world order.

Why in the News?

• National Handloom Day, observed on August 7, has drawn attention to the continuing economic significance of India's handloom sector and the challenges of declining returns, fragmented markets, and vanishing weaving traditions.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Handloom Sector (Historical Background, Economic Significance, Challenges, Govt Support & Recent Progress, Success Stories, etc.)

Historical Background

• Handloom weaving in India has a legacy that stretches far beyond craft. Long before the Industrial Revolution transformed manufacturing in Europe, Indian handlooms were among the world's greatest industrial enterprises.
• Indian textiles travelled across continents, powered global trade, and established India's reputation as one of history's foremost manufacturing economies.
• During the freedom struggle, weaving became an instrument of economic resistance and national identity.
• The Swadeshi Movement of 1905 called for a boycott of British textiles, and Mahatma Gandhi adopted the spinning wheel as a symbol of self-reliance.
• National Handloom Day, marked on August 7, commemorates the launch of the Swadeshi Movement and honours generations of Indian weavers.

Economic Significance of Handloom

• The handloom sector is often viewed as a small artisanal activity, culturally important but economically peripheral. The data suggests otherwise.
  • It provides livelihoods to more than 35 lakh weavers and allied workers.
  • These workers belong to over 31 lakh households.
  • Women constitute nearly 70% of the workforce.
  • It remains one of rural India's largest sources of non-farm employment.
  • It produces nearly 15% of the country's cloth, despite relying largely on manual technology.
• This makes handloom particularly valuable in a country where employment generation remains a central policy challenge.

Challenges Facing the Sector

• While a few celebrated weaving traditions continue to enjoy strong recognition, hundreds of lesser-known traditions face gradual extinction.
• The main pressures include declining returns for weavers, fragmented markets that limit access to buyers, and the breakdown of skill transmission within families.
• Younger generations are leaving the profession as incomes fall and the work is no longer seen as viable or aspirational.
• Every disappearing weave represents more than the loss of a product. It marks the disappearance of centuries of accumulated knowledge, a distinctive design vocabulary, and a form of cultural identity.
• Protecting handloom heritage is therefore both an economic necessity and a civilisational responsibility.

Government Support and Recent Progress

• Policy and programme support appears to be making a difference.
• The National Handloom Development Programme has focused on skill development, design innovation, technology adoption, branding, and improved market access.
• Greater integration with e-commerce platforms and expanding export opportunities have enabled many artisan clusters to reach consumers who were previously inaccessible.
• The Office of the Development Commissioner for Handlooms, in collaboration with UNESCO, has begun identifying and documenting India's languishing and endangered weaves. There is a case for extending this documentation across every region of the country.
• Alongside this, there is a policy focus on promoting Geographical Indication (GI)-tagged handloom and handicraft products and strengthening their presence in both domestic and international markets.

Success Stories

• The revival of Tangaliya weaving in Gujarat shows how a near-forgotten tradition can be brought back into circulation.
• The transformation of Badturang village in Odisha's Sambalpur district demonstrates the impact of cluster-level support.
• The growing popularity of Siddipet Gollabhama sarees reflects how design and market access can create fresh demand.
• These cases share a common pattern: traditional crafts thrive when design, market access, and institutional support converge.
• The global visibility of Indian weaves has also grown. When a handcrafted shirt in the traditional Tangaliya weave appeared in an international film, it was more than a fashion statement, it signalled the global appeal such crafts can command.

Making Handloom Aspirational

• The next phase of policy must shift from preservation to aspiration.
• For younger consumers, particularly Gen Z, handloom needs to be seen as contemporary, fashionable, and aspirational rather than merely traditional.
• Celebrity ambassadors, collaborations with leading designers, limited-edition collections, digital storytelling, and partnerships with influencers can reposition India's weaves as premium lifestyle products.
• The objective should not be to celebrate handloom because it is old, but because it represents craftsmanship, sustainability, and exclusivity.
• Limited production, often treated as a constraint, should be repositioned as a premium feature.

Expanding Global Reach

• India must also think beyond domestic markets. Global consumers increasingly value authenticity, sustainability, and handcrafted luxury, all areas where Indian handlooms enjoy a natural competitive advantage.
• Expanding exports, however, will require consistent quality standards, stronger branding, better GI protection, and vigilant action against cultural misappropriation.
• India can also leverage its traditional weaves, which for some global markets are ancient imports, to build its soft power.

Need for Better Measurement

• Unlike most manufacturing sectors, India's handloom economy is inadequately measured.
• Policymakers need reliable data on its contribution to GDP, exports, tax revenues, employment, and household incomes.
• Better measurement will enable better policy and allow the sector to be recognised for the economic value it already creates.
• Establishing a national platform through which States, producer organisations, and cooperatives can exchange successful practices would also accelerate innovation across the sector.

Context:

• The Government e-Marketplace (GeM), launched on 9 August 2016, has completed a decade of operations.
• It has emerged as India's flagship digital public procurement platform, replacing the erstwhile Directorate General of Supplies and Disposals (DGS&D).
• There is the need to highlight GeM's contribution to transparent governance, Ease of Doing Business (EoDB), MSME promotion, and Viksit Bharat 2047.

Government e-Marketplace (GeM) - An Overview:

• GeM is a one-stop digital platform for public procurement by Central and State governments, PSUs and autonomous bodies.
• It connects 1.37 lakh government buyers with 25 lakh sellers and service providers.
• It integrates the entire procurement cycle, for example, product discovery, e-bidding, contract award, digital payments, and audit trail.
• The erstwhile DGS&D was criticised for opaque and non-competitive procurement practices.

Key Achievements in a Decade:

• Enhancing transparency and accountability:
  • The entire procurement process has been digitised, reducing human discretion.
  • Every transaction leaves a traceable digital audit trail, strengthening accountability.
  • It minimises corruption, favouritism and procedural delays in government procurement.
• Promoting EoDB:
  • Introduced a single-window digital marketplace for procurement, simplifying registration and standardised procurement procedures.
  • Policy reforms include: Removal of Caution Money Deposit, rationalisation of transaction charges, and lower compliance costs have widened participation.
• Boosting inclusive economic growth:
  • GeM has expanded market access for traditionally underrepresented groups, for example, MSMEs; Start-ups; women entrepreneurs; and businesses from Tier-II, Tier-III cities and rural areas.
  • These enterprises can directly sell to government buyers without intermediaries, creating a more level playing field.

Performance Indicators:

• Contribution to 'Make in India' and Atmanirbhar Bharat:
  • Preference for domestic manufacturers and service providers strengthens indigenous production.
  • Reinforces local value chains and reduces dependence on imports.
  • MSEs account for nearly 60% of total orders (by volume) and over 45% of Gross Merchandise Value (GMV) on GeM.
• Other indicators:
  • Annual GMV has crossed ₹5 lakh crore in each of the last two financial years.
  • Cumulative procurement value has reached around ₹20 lakh crore.
  • The platform now hosts approximately 10,644 product categories, and 350 service categories.
  • These figures reflect GeM's growing role in India's public procurement ecosystem.

Improving Public Service Delivery and its Impact:

• Efficient procurement through GeM:
  • It has enhanced delivery across critical sectors, including healthcare (medicines and vaccines), defence procurement (including drones), infrastructure development, and rural public services.
  • Transparent procurement ensures better utilisation of taxpayer funds while improving the quality and timeliness of public services.
• Economic impact:
  • According to an IIT Delhi study, GeM generated an estimated ₹86,571.69 crore in monetised benefits over the last three financial years.
  • Gains arose from lower procurement prices, greater process efficiency, reduced transaction costs and delays.
• GeM and digital governance:
  • GeM exemplifies India's expanding Digital Public Infrastructure (DPI) model by combining e-governance, transparency, data-driven decision-making, competitive procurement, and inclusive participation.
  • It advances constitutional principles of good governance, accountability and efficient utilisation of public resources.

Future Vision:

• Priorities as GeM enters its 2nd decade:
  • Adoption of emerging technologies for smarter procurement.
  • Building a globally benchmarked digital procurement platform.
  • Promoting green and sustainable procurement.
  • Expanding participation of Start-ups, innovators, women entrepreneurs, youth, MSMEs, and entrepreneurs from smaller towns and disadvantaged communities.
  • These objectives align with the broader vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.
• Way forward: Despite its achievements, sustained reforms are necessary for -
  • Improve digital accessibility and awareness among small suppliers.
  • Strengthen cybersecurity and data privacy safeguards.
  • Enhance procurement capacity at State and local government levels.
  • Ensure timely payments to vendors.
  • Expand green procurement standards and AI-enabled procurement analytics.

Conclusion:

• GeM has transformed India's public procurement system by making it transparent, competitive, technology-driven and inclusive.
• Its success demonstrates how digital governance can simultaneously improve public service delivery, promote entrepreneurship, empower MSMEs, and ensure efficient use of public resources.
• Continued innovation and wider stakeholder participation will be crucial for making GeM a global benchmark in digital public procurement and advancing the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.

Context

• India is home to remarkable linguistic diversity, with languages serving as carriers of history, culture and identity.
• The position of English in this landscape often generates debate because of its colonial origins.
• However, treating English and Indian languages as competing alternatives creates a false binary.
• Although English was introduced through British colonialism, Indians have appropriated, transformed and Indianised it over more than two centuries.

Historical Evolution of English in India

• Colonial Origins
  • English initially entered India as an instrument of colonial administration, commerce, missionary activity and imperial governance.
  • Its early expansion was closely associated with British interests, however, languages are not permanently defined by their origins.
  • Once communities adopt a language, they reshape it according to their own needs, values and experiences.
• From Colonial Instrument to Nationalist Medium
  • Raja Ram Mohan Roy used English to defend press freedom.
  • Dadabhai Naoroji employed it to present the Drain Theory and expose colonial economic exploitation.
  • Swami Vivekananda used English to communicate India's intellectual and social vision.
  • Mahatma Gandhi translated Hind Swaraj into English to reach wider audiences.

Constitutional and Institutional Acceptance

• Post-Independence Language Settlement
  • Hindi was recognised as the Official Language of the Union, while English was retained for official purposes.
  • This arrangement reflected India's commitment to linguistic accommodation rather than forced uniformity.
• Institutional Significance
  • Over the decades, English became deeply embedded in:
  • Legislature and executive
  • Judiciary and administration
  • Higher education and research
  • Science, technology and professional communication
  • Its continued institutional relevance demonstrates that English has become an important component of India's modern governance structure.

English and Indian Literary Expression

• Emergence of Indian Writing in English
  • Writers such as R.K. Narayan, Mulk Raj Anand, Amitav Ghosh and Vikram Seth have demonstrated that English can authentically express Indian experiences.
  • The Sahitya Akademi's recognition of English further confirms its place within India's literary landscape.
• Cultural Adaptation
  • Indian Writing in English has incorporated Indian histories, traditions, social realities and cultural sensibilities.
  • It shows that a language can be transformed by the community that uses it and become a medium of Indian cultural expression.

Reach and Aspirational Value of English

• Expanding Usage
  • The 2011 Census recorded nearly 129 million Indians using English as a first, second or third language.
  • Its reach has expanded further with the growth of English-medium education.
  • English is widely used in CBSE and CISCE schools, universities and professional institutions.
• Economic and Social Mobility
  • English has become a language of aspiration and opportunity. Proficiency can improve access to:
    • Higher education
    • Employment
    • Professional advancement
    • Technology and scientific knowledge
    • Global markets and communication
  • In sectors such as IT, business, finance, science and international commerce, English provides India with a significant global advantage.

The Indianisation of English

• Emergence of Indian English
  • India has developed Indian English, characterised by distinctive pronunciation, vocabulary, idioms and rhetorical patterns.
  • Raja Rao anticipated this evolution, arguing that India would eventually develop its own form of English.
• Language Shaped by Society
  • Indian English reflects India's multilingual environment, cultural traditions and social realities.
  • Its evolution demonstrates that language is shaped not merely by its birthplace but by the communities that use it.

The Way Forward: Moving Beyond the English-versus-Indian-Languages Binary

• India has historically been multilingual. People have used different languages according to family, region, education, profession and social context.
• Therefore, English should not be viewed as a competitor to Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Marathi, Kannada, Odia or other Indian languages.
• India should pursue linguistic complementarity, where different languages fulfil different but overlapping roles:
• Strengthening Indian languages and expanding English proficiency can therefore occur simultaneously.

Conclusion

• English cannot claim the same ancient indigenous status as Sanskrit or Tamil because it entered India through colonial rule, yet its historical origin does not determine its contemporary identity.
• Over generations, Indians have transformed English through nationalism, literature, education, governance, professional life and everyday communication.
• It has developed a distinct Indian form and become deeply embedded in modern India's institutional and cultural landscape.
• India's linguistic future lies in inclusive multilingualism, where English coexists with India's rich linguistic traditions.

About Phulkari:

• Phulkari, meaning “flower work,” is a traditional embroidery art of Punjab.
• There are various theories about the origin of phulkari.
• Some believe this embroidery dates back to the 7th century CE, while others suggest it originated from Iran, where it was known as Gulkari.
• However, distinct styles of phulkari have been identified, making it uniquely Punjabi.
• References to phulkari can be found in ancient texts, folk legends, and literature, with the earliest mention in the 18th-century Punjabi literature.
• It received a Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2010.
• Features:
  • It's an amalgam of cotton and silk.
  • The cloth used is usually hand-woven thick cotton, called ‘ khadder’. While the threads are thin, lustrous, and breakable silk, called ‘pat’.
  • The cloth is usually dyed red, but can be white, grey, or black
  • And the treads are a myriad of colors, ranging from the rich dark pink to soothing off-whites.
  • The stitch is intricate, small, and completely fills the cloth. The stitch can be vertical, horizontal, or diagonal to create the shadow effect.
  • Phulkari embroidery makes use of the least complicated patterns to create extremely intriguing designs.
  • The designs and patterns can vary from geometrical figures to flowers to local fauna. Peacocks, elephants, birds, and camels appear frequently.
  • Phulkari’s product range includes embroidered chaddars, dupattas, and stoles, traditionally worn by brides or for ceremonies.