About Tephra:

• Tephra, a volcanology term for ash, is small rock fragments ejected from a volcano into the atmosphere, which is then deposited around and downwind of the volcano.
• The size of particles that fall out is largest near the volcano and gets progressively smaller further from the volcano.
• Tephra produces a wide range of hazards.
  • When the ejected material is in the atmosphere, it is electrically charged and often produces lightning.
  • Several people have been killed by lightning from volcanic eruption clouds.
  • Other hazards are produced when the ash is deposited on the ground.
  • Ash can disrupt electricity, television, radio, and telephone communication lines; bury roads and other manmade structures; damage machinery; start fires; and clog drainage and sewage systems.
  • It kills crops, damages machinery, and is a hazard to aviators.
  • Tephra is heavy - a significant accumulation on a rooftop could collapse a building.
  • In addition, it often blocks out the sun, creating darkness and unnecessary panic.
  • Ash can produce poor visibility and cause respiratory problems. 

About Kamakhya Temple:

• It is situated on Nilachal Hill and adjoins the southern bank of the Brahmaputra River in Guwahati, Assam.
• The temple is dedicated to Goddess Sati, an incarnation of goddess Durga and the consort of Lord Shiva.
• It is one of the most revered centres of Tantric practices.
• It is regarded as one of the oldest of the 51 Shakti Peethas in India.
• The former temple was destroyed by Kala Pahar, which was later reconstructed in 1565 by Chilarai, who was the reigning king of the Koch dynasty.
• Ambubachi Mela is one of the major festivals of this temple. The festival is held every year to commemorate the yearly menstruation of Goddess Kamakhya.
• Temple Architecture:
  • It had been modelled out of a combination of two different styles, namely, the traditional Nagara, or North Indian, and Saracenic, or Mughal style of architecture.
  • This unusual combination has been named the Nilachala Style of Architecture.
  • It has a unique structural style that is shaped in the form of a beehive surrounded by different sculptures of different gods.
  • This is the only temple of Assam having a fully developed ground plan.
  • It consists of five chambers, garbhagriha or sanctuary, antarala or vestibule, Jagan Mohan or principal chamber, bhogmandir or ritual chamber and natmandir or opera hall for performing traditional dance and music associated with sukti temples.
  • It is interesting to note that the superstructure of each of the above chambers exhibits different architectural features.

About Jhelum River:

• It is an important river that flows through northwestern India and eastern Pakistan.
• It is a tributary of the Indus River.
• The river is also known as Vitasta in Sanskrit, Hydaspes in Greek, and Bidasp in Persian.
• It is the lifeline of Kashmir, the region where it flows for most of its course.
• It is the largest and most western of the five rivers of Punjab and passes through the Jhelum District in the North of Punjab province, Pakistan.
• Course:
  • It originates at the Verinag Spring at Anantnag, at the foot of the Pir Panjal range in the Kashmir Valley.
  • The river meanders northwestward from the northern slope of the Pir Panjal Range through the Vale of Kashmir to Wular Lake at Srinagar, which controls its flow.
  • The river makes a deep, narrow gorge on its way to Pakistan.
  • It joins the Chenab River near Trimmu, Pakistan.
• The hydrology of the Jhelum River is largely controlled by snowmelt from the Karakoram and Himalaya ranges in the spring and the southwest monsoon on the Indian subcontinent that brings heavy rains from June to September.
• Major Tributaries:
  • The largest tributary of the Jhelum is the Kishenganga (Neelum) River, which joins near Muzaffarabad and enters the Punjab province, Pakistan.
  • The Kunhar River is the second largest tributary of the river, which connects Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK) and Pakistan on the Kohala Bridge of the Kanghan valley.
  • Other tributaries include the Sandran River, Bringi River, Arapath River, Watlara River, Lidder River, and Veshaw River.

About Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in Madhya Pradesh.
• It is the largest wildlife sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.
• Situated on a plateau in the upper Vindhyan range, it serves as an important ecological corridor connecting Panna, Satpura, and Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserves.
• It is classified under the Deccan peninsula biogeographic region.
• Drainage:
  • Three-fourths of Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary falls in the Yamuna [Ganges] basin, and one-fourth of the sanctuary falls in the Narmada basin.
  • The north-flowing Kopra River, Bamner River, and Bearma River, which are tributaries of the Ken River, are the major rivers of this sanctuary.
• Vegetation: It is rich with lush green vegetation, small grasslands, and dense tropical dry and mixed deciduous forests.
• Flora: Teak, Saja, Dhaora, Bhirra, Ber, Bel, Mahua, Tendu, Gunja, Amla, etc. Teak dominates the forested region.
• Fauna:
  • It supports diverse wildlife, including Indian wolves, Bengal tigers, leopards, sloth bears, sambar deer, nilgai, chinkara, and various bird species.
  • It has been selected for the Cheetah reintroduction Project in India.

About Caulocera hollowayi and Asura buxa:

• They are two new lichen moth species discovered from the eastern Himalayas.
• Caulocera hollowayi was identified from specimens collected near Golitar in Sikkim.
  • Researchers distinguished this species through its unique wing patterns, colour bands, and specific microscopic body features that differentiate it from previously known moths of the same genus.
• Asura buxa, was discovered from specimens collected at Panijhora in West Bengal.
  • Scientists noted that the moth possesses distinctive colour patterns on its wings along with unique internal anatomical characteristics that confirmed it as a new species.
• Lichen moths play an important ecological role because their caterpillars feed on lichens, organisms that are highly sensitive to environmental pollution.
• Because lichens are affected by polluted air, the presence or absence of these moths can help scientists monitor air quality and environmental health, particularly in fragile mountain ecosystems like the Indian Himalayas.

About European Free Trade Association:

• It is an intergovernmental organisation established in 1960 by the Stockholm Convention.
• Objective: Promotes free trade and economic integration between its members within Europe and globally.
• Member Countries: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland.
• The members of this organization are all open, competitive economies committed to the progressive liberalisation of trade in the multinational arena as well as in free trade agreements. 
• In contrast to the European Union (EU), it is not a customs union.
• Headquarters: EFTA Secretariat is located in Geneva.
  • It assists the EFTA Council in the management of relations between the 4 EFTA States and deals with the negotiation and operation of EFTA’s FTAs.
• Governance
  • EFTA Council: Its highest governing body is the EFTA. It generally meets 8 times a year at the ambassadorial level and twice a year at the ministerial level.
  • EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA): It monitors compliance with European Economic Area (EEA) rules in Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway. 
  • EFTA Court: It is based in Luxembourg and has the competence and authority to settle internal and external disputes regarding the implementation, application or interpretation of the EEA agreement.

About Mozambique:

• Location: It is a country in Southern Africa and is located in the Southern and Eastern Hemispheres of the Earth.
• Bordering countries: Zimbabwe (west), Eswatini and South Africa (south and southwest), Zambia, Malawi (north west), and Tanzania (North). 
• Water Bodies: It has a coastline on the Indian Ocean to the east.
• The island countries and territories of Madagascar, Comoros, and Mayotte are separated from Mozambique by the Mozambique Channel.
• Capital City: Maputo
• Geographical Features of Mozambique:
  • Climate: The climate in most of Mozambique is tropical and warm.
  • Rivers: The River Zambezi being the largest and other rivers are Limpopo, Licungo, Lurio, Rovuma etc.
  • Major Lakes: Lake Malawi (Nyasa) is the country’s major lake. 
  • Highest Peak: Mount Binga
  • Natural Resources: The country’s principal natural resources are natural gas, coal, mineral, sand, hydropower, and most likely oil.

About Asteroid 2024 YR4:

• It is classified as an Apollo-type asteroid, meaning its orbit crosses Earth's orbit but spends most of its time beyond it.
• Origin: The study reveals YR4 is a solid, stony type that likely originated from an asteroid family in the central Main Belt between Mars and Jupiter,
• It was discovered in 2024, by the Asteroid Terrestrial-impact Last Alert System (ATLAS) telescope in Chile.
  • The Y in the asteroid’s name indicates that it was discovered in the last half of December.
  • The R4 indicates that it was the 117th asteroid found in that period.

About INS Trikand:

• It is a Talwar-class guided-missile frigate of the Indian Navy.
• It is the third and final ship of the second batch of Talwar-class frigates ordered by the Indian Navy.
• It was built by the Yantar shipyard in Kaliningrad, Russia.
• It was commissioned into the Indian Navy in 2013 at Kaliningrad, Russia.
• It is part of the Indian Navy’s Western Fleet and operates under the Western Naval Command headquartered at Mumbai.
• Features of INS Trikand:
  • Armory: It carries a supersonic BRAHMOS missile system, advanced surface-to-air missiles Shtil, an upgraded A190 medium-range gun, electro-optical 30 mm close-in weapon system, anti-submarine weapons such as torpedoes and rockets, and an advanced electronic warfare system.
  • The weapons and sensors are integrated through a Combat Management System ‘Trebovanie-M’, which enables the ship to simultaneously neutralise multiple surface, sub-surface, and air threats. 
  • It is powered by four gas turbines.
  • It is capable of speeds more than 30 knots and is configured to carry a Kamov 31 helicopter.