Why in news?

Fresh underwater excavations off Poompuhar, the ancient Chola port city in Tamil Nadu, have found new evidence of its maritime connections. The 18-day exploration was carried out by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology (TNSDA) with the Indian Maritime University.

Key findings include: A fragment of a West Asian torpedo jar; Four terracotta ring wells; More than 250 ceramic fragments. Much of the ancient settlement is believed to lie beneath the sea today.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About Poompuhar
• A Busy Trading Port
• Significance of the Torpedo Jar
• Other Structures and Objects
• The Lost City: How Poompuhar Went Under

About Poompuhar

• Poompuhar, also called Kaveripoompattinam, lies in present-day Mayiladuthurai district.
• It sits at the mouth of the 800-km-long Cauvery river, where the river empties into the Bay of Bengal.
• It is believed to have been the capital of the early Cholas and features prominently in Sangam and post-Sangam literature.
• A 2011 archaeology report says the city existed from the 5th–4th century BCE, based on the carbon dating of a wooden log recovered there.
• The city is said to have had three major divisions:
  • Maruvurppakkam — along the seashore.
  • Pattinappakkam — to the west.
  • Nalangadi — between the two.

A Busy Trading Port

• The port was thronged during the Chola period. Exports were stamped with a tiger symbol, the Chola customs seal, marking their origin.
• Merchants from across India and Southeast Asia came seeking markets.
• Imports included articles from the Ganges region, food products from Ceylon, and spices from Java.
• Earlier research supports this picture:
  • The 1996 paper notes that ships from Tamralipti (West Bengal) and Palur (Odisha) visited Poompuhar. From there, sea-going vessels sailed to Southeast Asia, Arabia and Rome.
  • Sreelata Menon's In Search of Lost Cities (2025) describes ships from Rome, Egypt, China and Arabia docking round the clock, with cargo, including horses, stamped with the tiger seal.

Significance of the Torpedo Jar

• The recovered fragment is of fine ceramic, with an estimated diameter of 30–35 cm.
• Torpedo jars were historically used to carry liquid cargo such as wine and olive oil across ocean routes. This is proof of Poompuhar's links with West Asia and the Mediterranean world.
• The discovery is not entirely new, but it adds to evidence already gathered by earlier studies.

Other Structures and Objects

• Earlier offshore work found:
  • Brick structures, terracotta ring wells, storage jars and clay patches of the Sangam period.
  • Remains that experts believe are of a public building, wharf and reservoir.
  • Megalithic pottery and associated ware, showing that ancient habitation extended beyond the present shoreline.
• Why The Ring Wells Matter - Ring wells were built on dry land to reach freshwater. Finding them on the seabed may point to a buried palaeochannel, meaning an ancient riverbed later submerged by coastal erosion and rising sea levels.

The Lost City: How Poompuhar Went Under

• Natural Explanations - Catastrophic floods are believed to have hit the coast around the 4th or 5th century CE, swallowing large parts of the city.
  • Studies also suggest a major tsunami around the 3rd century CE may have contributed to its submergence.
• Legend - According to analysts, the port's king, grieving his son's death, failed to celebrate Indra Vizha, a festival honouring Indra (Vendhan) as ruler of rain, thunder and lightning. Enraged, the goddess of Poompuhar made the sea swallow the city.
• Scholarly View - Scholars differ. Either the entire city was submerged and rebuilt after the sea receded, or only part of it was engulfed.

Conclusion

Poompuhar shows that Tamil coastal trade was global long before the modern era. Ships from Rome, Arabia and Southeast Asia met here, and a single jar fragment now confirms that link once more.

Much of the city still lies underwater, so the seabed remains one of India's richest unread archives of maritime history.

Why in news?

Recently, India's insurance regulator, the Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI), issued a consultation paper titled "Recalibrating Economics of Insurance Distribution."

It covers distribution, structure, expenses and commissions. The aim is to improve consumer protection, reduce mis-selling and counter dark patterns. Comments are invited by October 25.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Market Reaction
• Key Proposals
• Why IRDAI Is Acting?
• The Larger Backdrop
• Who Is Hit Hardest?
• Criticisms and Gaps

Market Reaction

• Analysts say that the reforms are good news for households but will eat into the profit margins of distributors.
• As a result, insurance shares did fall sharply recently.
  • PB Fintech (parent of Policybazaar): fell 36% on September 24, then 3% more on next day.
  • TurtleMint: slumped 20% on both days.
  • Many banks also ended lower.

Key Proposals

• Commission Caps - In life insurance, first-year commission would be capped at: 20% of premium for distributors; 25% for agents.
  • This is less than half of current commissions. The regulator had scrapped such caps in 2023.
• Lower Expense of Management (EoM) - EoM is the cost an insurer charges against premiums, including administrative and distribution costs such as agent commissions.
  • IRDAI proposes reducing it, over five years, to: 12.5% of gross direct premium for life insurers; 20% for general insurers.
  • Limits are also set for 2028–29. According to CareEdge Ratings, 20 of 22 life insurers and 28 of 31 general insurers currently exceed the proposed limits.

Why IRDAI Is Acting?

• IRDAI says sales are led by commissions, not by price and quality.
  • General insurance: premiums via brokers rose 37% between 2022–23 and 2024–25, but commissions rose 173%.
  • Life insurance: premiums via corporate agents rose 28%, but commissions surged 125%.
• So, distributors' income has grown 4–5 times faster than premiums.
• The paper says heavy dependence on commission-led distribution and opaque pricing has weakened competition and pushed value away from customers.

The Larger Backdrop

• FDI in insurance was raised to 100% in December last year, and notified in May 2026.
• India is the world's 10th largest insurance market, yet insurance penetration was only 3.7% in 2024–25.
• Insurance penetration means total premium (life and non-life) divided by GDP.

Who Is Hit Hardest?

• Online Aggregators - Policybazaar and TurtleMint face high customer acquisition costs and rely heavily on upfront commissions. They lack a network of agents like LIC, so caps hurt them most.
• Banks - Banks are key distributors because of cross-selling and deep networks.
  • Analysts note that banks with multiple tie-ups and heavy incentive-led payouts will suffer more than those with single partnerships.
  • Insurance distribution income for banks rose to 5.1% of profit before tax in 2025–26, from 3.5% in 2022–23.
  • Banks with insurance subsidiaries (HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, SBI, Kotak Mahindra Bank) are relatively insulated, as they keep part of the savings through higher insurer margins.

Criticisms and Gaps

• Persistency is Not Addressed - Persistency means policyholders continuing to pay premiums. Experts say writing a new policy still pays a distributor several times more than retaining an old one.
  • They suggest:
    • Deferring part of first-year commission.
    • Vesting it against 13th- and 25th-month
    • Clawing it back on early lapse.
    • Flattening the gap between first-year and renewal commission.
  • Aggregators Perform Best on Persistency - IRDAI's data shows 71% of online-sold policies are active after five years, against 43% for those sold by corporate agents such as banks. Yet aggregators are hit hardest.
  • Penetration Risk - Caps may discourage insurers from selling low-ticket, low-margin policies, which drive penetration in non-tier-1 cities and among lower-income groups.
  • Smaller Insurers - Critics argue that the framework should recognise the structural cost differences of smaller insurers, so distribution stays competitive and inclusive.

Conclusion

IRDAI's proposals target a real problem: sellers earning more than buyers gain. Yet capping commissions alone does not fix lapsing policies, and it could squeeze the low-ticket products that widen coverage.

The final rules must protect consumers without pushing insurance away from the people who still lack it.

Why in the News?

• Recent concerns over electoral roll management and the functioning of ECINet have renewed discussion on the legal status and protection of the right to vote in India.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About Universal Adult Suffrage (Background, Evolution, Legal Status, Electoral Rolls, Case for Greater Protection, etc.)

Universal Adult Suffrage in India

• India adopted universal adult suffrage from the beginning of the Republic, granting adult citizens the right to participate in elections without restrictions based on gender, caste, religion, education or property.
• In the United States, although the 15^th and 19^th Amendments extended voting rights to African Americans in 1870 and women in 1920, systemic barriers such as poll taxes and literacy tests continued to disenfranchise many for decades.
• India chose immediate, universal inclusion, ensuring democratic equality from the outset and bypassing the prolonged struggles seen elsewhere.
• Article 326 granted every adult citizen the right to vote regardless of gender, caste, religion, education or property.
• This was operationalised through two laws, the Representation of the People Act, 1950, governing preparation and revision of electoral rolls, and the 1951 Act, regulating election conduct, candidature and electoral offences.
• The first general election presented a major administrative challenge, with around 173 million voters, many of whom were illiterate.
• The Election Commission, under the first Chief Election Commissioner Sukumar Sen, introduced election symbols to make participation accessible to voters.

What Is the Legal Status of the Right to Vote?

• The distinction between a fundamental right, constitutional right and statutory right is important because each category carries different levels of legal protection.
• The Constituent Assembly considered whether voting should form part of the Fundamental Rights chapter. However, the proposal was not adopted.
• In Kuldip Nayar v. Union of India (2006), a five-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court held that the “right to elect” is a statutory right, deriving from Section 62 of the Representation of the People Act, 1951, rather than a fundamental or constitutional right.
• A two-judge Bench in Rajbala v. State of Haryana (2015) referred to the right to vote as a constitutional right. However, the larger Constitution Bench ruling in Kuldip Nayar remains the controlling position.
• In Anoop Baranwal v. Union of India (2023), the Supreme Court did not revisit the issue, noting the existing position established by Kuldip Nayar. Justice Ajay Rastogi, in his dissent, argued that the right to vote could be viewed as an expression of Article 19(1)(a) and connected with Article 21.
• Thus, under the position discussed in the source, the right to elect continues to be treated as a statutory right, although its democratic significance has been recognised by the judiciary.

Why Are Electoral Rolls Important?

• The right to participate in elections depends in practice on an accurate electoral roll.
• The Representation of the People Act, 1950 provides the statutory framework for preparation and revision of electoral rolls.
• Section 19 provides that a citizen who is at least 18 years old, ordinarily resident in a constituency and not otherwise disqualified is entitled to registration.
• Under Section 21, the Election Commission is empowered to direct the preparation and revision of electoral rolls. Errors such as:
  • omission of eligible voters,
  • inclusion of ineligible persons,
  • duplicate entries, and
  • incorrect voter details
  • can affect electoral integrity and the principle of “one person, one vote.”
• The challenge becomes more complex when electoral administration increasingly depends on digital systems.

The Case for Greater Protection

• The debate over making voting a fundamental right centres on the level of constitutional protection that should accompany the franchise.
• Supporters of greater constitutional protection argue that voting is closely connected with democratic participation and that restrictions affecting the franchise should receive stronger judicial scrutiny.
• At the same time, the existing legal framework gives Parliament the authority to regulate electoral participation through legislation, while the Election Commission exercises constitutional powers under Article 324 relating to the superintendence, direction and control of elections.
• The issue therefore involves balancing electoral integrity, administrative regulation and individual participation.

Conclusion

• India's system combines universal adult suffrage under Article 326 with statutory regulation through the Representation of the People Acts and constitutional supervision by the Election Commission.
• The continuing debate over the legal status of the right to vote highlights a broader constitutional question: how should electoral administration protect both the accuracy of electoral rolls and the individual's ability to participate in the democratic process?

Why in News?

• The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has introduced a new GDP series with 2022-23 as the base year, replacing the earlier 2011-12 series.
• While changes such as double deflation, improved informal-sector estimates and the use of new price indices have received considerable attention, several other methodological changes have also been introduced.
• According to MoSPI, five additional changes aim to improve the accuracy, coverage and reliability of India’s national income estimates.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Improved Classification of Manufacturing and Services
• Inclusion of Government-Provided Housing Services
• Revision of the Useful Life of Fixed Assets
• Improved Estimation of Household Savings
• Inclusion of Rooftop Solar Electricity
• Conclusion

Improved Classification of Manufacturing and Services:

• Earlier methodology (2011-12 series):
  • Enterprises engaged in multiple activities were classified according to their major activity.
  • Their entire Gross Value Added (GVA) was assigned to the sector contributing the largest share of turnover.
• New methodology (2022-23 series): An enterprise’s GVA is distributed between manufacturing and services according to the respective contributions of these activities.
• Data source:
  • MoSPI uses information from the Ministry of Corporate Affairs' annual MGT-7 and MGT-7A forms, which companies submit to disclose their financial and operational details.
  • These forms require companies to report business activities contributing at least 10% of their turnover, along with their respective shares.
• Significance: This activity-based classification provides a more accurate picture of sectoral GVA, particularly for enterprises engaged in both manufacturing and services.

Inclusion of Government-Provided Housing Services:

• Earlier GDP series:
  • It did not adequately account for the housing services provided to government employees living in government-owned accommodation.
  • While House Rent Allowance (HRA) is included in government employees' salaries, the imputed value of housing services provided to employees was not separately accounted for.
• New methodology: The new series estimates the value of these housing services using the cost of constructing the houses, after accounting for repairs, maintenance and annual consumption of fixed capital.
• Significance: This improves the measurement of government-provided housing services and ensures more comprehensive coverage of economic activity.

Revision of the Useful Life of Fixed Assets:

• The new GDP series has revised the estimated average useful life of several assets to calculate their annual consumption of fixed capital (depreciation).
• For instance, the average useful life of dwellings is now assumed to be 60-75 years, down from 70-80 years in the old series.
• MoSPI periodically reviews the useful life of assets, considering technological changes, obsolescence, operating conditions, maintenance practices and regulatory requirements.
• Significance: Revised asset-life estimates improve the measurement of depreciation and, consequently, the estimation of GVA and other national accounts aggregates.

Improved Estimation of Household Savings:

• Household savings, an important component of national accounts, comprise financial assets, physical assets and valuables such as gold and silver. The new GDP series introduces two major changes.
• Financial savings:
  • Data on shares, debentures, hybrid instruments and mutual funds are now sourced from the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), replacing the earlier reliance on the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
  • This enables the inclusion of newer investment instruments, including Real Estate Investment Trusts (REITs), Infrastructure Investment Trusts (InvITs) and Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs).
• Savings in valuables: The estimated nominal household savings in gold and silver ornaments for 2022-23 increased to ₹1.65 lakh crore, compared to ₹64,504 crore in the previous series.
• Significance:
  • The revised methodology improves the coverage of financial instruments and provides a more comprehensive estimate of household savings.
  • The (above) estimates are based on the 2019 All India Debt and Investment Survey (AIDIS). MoSPI initiated a fresh AIDIS in July 2026, which is scheduled to conclude in June 2027.

Inclusion of Rooftop Solar Electricity:

• The new GDP series includes electricity generated by households through rooftop solar panels for their own consumption. The estimation methodology varies across years.
• For example,
  • 2022-23 and 2023-24: Estimates are based on the respective Household Consumption Expenditure Surveys and the Ministry of Health's population projections.
  • 2024-25 onwards:
    • Estimates use the growth in installed rooftop solar capacity, as reported by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), along with the applicable per-unit electricity price.
    • This electricity is included in the electricity, gas, water supply and other utility services sector.
  • Significance: The inclusion of household-generated electricity improves the coverage of economic activity, particularly self-consumed renewable energy that may not be fully reflected in conventional electricity sales data.

Conclusion:

• The five additional changes in the 2022-23 GDP series extend beyond the revision of the base year.
• They improve the classification of economic activities, measurement of government services, estimation of depreciation, coverage of household savings and accounting for decentralised renewable energy.
• Together, these methodological improvements aim to make India's national accounts more comprehensive and representative of structural changes in the economy.

Context

• India’s large young population can become a powerful engine of economic growth only when young citizens receive quality education, relevant skills, productive employment and meaningful opportunities.
• A youthful population alone does not guarantee a demographic dividend; without opportunities, it can generate frustration and social disillusionment.
• This challenge is particularly significant in Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, where demographic potential intersects with conflict, geographical isolation and strategic sensitivities.
• Sustainable development requires combining economic opportunity, connectivity, entrepreneurship and regional integration with security considerations.

The Demographic Opportunity and Aspiration-Reality Gap

• India’s demographic advantage contrasts with China’s ageing population.
• India possesses a vast pool of young people entering the workforce, creating an opportunity for rapid economic growth if sufficient productive employment is generated.
• The smartphone revolution has dramatically expanded young people's expectations.
• Even those in remote areas can observe global educational, professional and lifestyle opportunities instantly. This has widened the aspiration-reality gap.
• Higher education has expanded, but a degree no longer guarantees employment or economic independence.
• Unemployment, recruitment delays, examination irregularities and paper leaks can therefore intensify frustration.
• The challenge is to build an economy capable of absorbing young people’s aspirations and talents.

Kashmir’s Youth: From Security Lens to Opportunity Lens

• Young people in Jammu and Kashmir share fundamental aspirations with youth elsewhere: dignity, employment, economic independence and a secure future.
• However, decades of conflict and political uncertainty have imposed additional constraints.
• A predominantly security-oriented perception can prevent Kashmiri youth from being recognised as human capital and strategic assets.
• Jammu and Kashmir possesses considerable hydroelectric potential, mineral resources and tourism opportunities, while its geographical location itself represents an underutilised economic asset.

Kashmir’s Historic Role as a Crossroads

• Historically, Kashmir was a crossroads connecting South Asia, Central Asia and Tibet, rather than an isolated frontier.
• Caravan routes facilitated the movement of goods, people, ideas, culture and skills.
• The influence of Mir Sayyid Ali Hamadani (Shah-i-Hamadan) and Persian and Central Asian craftsmen illustrates how connectivity contributed to Kashmir’s renowned handicraft traditions.
• The larger lesson is that connectivity creates economic ecosystems.
• Modern policy can draw upon this historical experience by transforming suitable traditional routes into modern, regulated economic corridors, subject to contemporary diplomatic and security conditions.

From Security Barriers to Connectivity Opportunities

• Connectivity involving Pakistan, China and Central Asia is necessarily sensitive.
• Reopening traditional routes therefore requires a phased diplomatic and infrastructure strategy rather than immediate unrestricted access.
• With Pakistan, India could explore confidence-building measures and trade connectivity when political and security conditions permit.
• With China, practical dialogue on trans-Himalayan connectivity could be pursued where economic interests and security concerns can be reconciled.
• A gradual strategy could begin with pilot corridors, selected according to security, diplomatic feasibility and economic potential.
• Successful initiatives could subsequently be expanded. Properly regulated connectivity could complement security objectives by encouraging economic interdependence and stability.

Jammu and Kashmir as India’s Northern Economic Gateway

• Greater connectivity with Central Asia could enable Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh to function as northern economic gateways for India.
• Improved access could connect Indian businesses with Central Asian markets while attracting investment, tourism and commerce.
• A functioning land corridor could generate opportunities in:
  • Transport and logistics
  • Warehousing and supply chains
  • Tourism and hospitality
  • Agriculture and horticulture
  • Manufacturing and handicrafts
  • Finance, technology and services
• Unlike connectivity concentrated around airports or individual urban centres, land corridors can distribute economic activity across wider geographical areas.

A Road to Opportunity for the Young

• The ultimate purpose of connectivity should be employment and human development, rather than infrastructure alone.
• Construction can generate immediate jobs, while functioning corridors can create sustained demand for logistics, services, manufacturing and entrepreneurship.
• For Kashmir’s youth, expanded connectivity could transform aspirations into tangible opportunities and provide alternatives to dependence on limited public-sector employment.
• It could also strengthen participation in national and international markets.
• India’s demographic dividend is time-sensitive. The country cannot assume that its youthful population will remain an advantage indefinitely.
• Demographic potential must therefore be converted into productive human capital while the opportunity remains.

Conclusion

• India’s demographic future and Jammu and Kashmir’s economic future are closely connected to opportunity creation.
• Education without employment, connectivity without economic activity and security without inclusion cannot fully address the aspirations of a young population.
• India’s demographic advantage will yield lasting benefits only when young citizens across the country can move from education and aspiration towards employment, enterprise and dignity.

Context

• The Supreme Court’s dismissal of Congress leader Meenakshi Natarajan’s challenge to the rejection of her Rajya Sabha nomination from Madhya Pradesh raises important questions concerning electoral transparency, candidate rights and judicial review.
• The controversy centres on the alleged non-disclosure of a pending criminal complaint and the legal scope of Form 26 under the Representation of the People Act, 1951 (ROPA).
• It also raises questions about the limits of Returning Officers’ powers and the constitutional bar on judicial intervention during elections.

Evolution of Criminal Disclosure Requirements

• The requirement to disclose candidates’ criminal antecedents originated in the Supreme Court’s landmark Union of India v. Association for Democratic Reforms (2002).
• The Court recognised the voter’s right to information and held that disclosure enables an informed electoral choice.
• Parliament subsequently inserted Section 33-A into ROPA, while the Election Commission prescribed Form 26 for candidate affidavits.
• The objective was to improve transparency without creating additional qualifications for contesting elections.
• However, a significant divergence emerged in 2018. Section 33-A requires disclosure of cases involving offences punishable with imprisonment of two years or more where charges have been framed.
• The amended Form 26, by contrast, requires disclosure of all pending criminal cases, regardless of whether charges have been framed.

The Problem of Delegated Legislation

• Rule 4A of the Conduct of Election Rules, 1961, requires candidates to submit Form 26 with their nomination papers.
• Since the rule primarily provides the procedural mechanism for implementing Section 33-A, a constitutional question arises when the prescribed form appears to impose broader substantive obligations than the parent statute.
• The key issue is whether delegated legislation can enlarge a statutory obligation created by Parliament.
• Procedural rules may prescribe how information is supplied, but their authority to determine what must be disclosed cannot automatically exceed the limits of the enabling statute.
• At the same time, broader disclosure can promote electoral accountability and informed voting.
• The challenge is to reconcile transparency with statutory authority, legal certainty and proportionality.

 Electoral Integrity versus Candidate Rights

• Criminal disclosure requirements serve a legitimate democratic purpose by giving voters relevant information about candidates.
• However, candidates are also entitled to fair treatment under established law.
• A pending criminal complaint is not equivalent to a charge framed by a court or a conviction. Treating every allegation as sufficient grounds for rejection could undermine the presumption of innocence and potentially expose candidates to politically motivated complaints.
• Electoral transparency must therefore be balanced with procedural fairness and clear statutory thresholds.
• The law should distinguish between a complaint, investigation, criminal case, framing of charges and conviction.

Constitutional Remedies and Article 329(b)

• The second major issue concerns judicial intervention during elections. Article 329(b) restricts judicial interference in electoral matters and generally requires disputes to be raised through an election petition.
• In N.P. Ponnuswami v. Returning Officer (1952), the Supreme Court established that courts should ordinarily avoid interrupting an ongoing electoral process.
• The principle seeks to preserve electoral continuity and certainty.
• However, difficulties arise where a Returning Officer is alleged to have acted without jurisdiction or with manifest arbitrariness.
• A rigid application of Article 329(b) could potentially deny immediate judicial scrutiny even where an administrative decision is fundamentally defective.
• The central constitutional challenge is therefore to reconcile judicial restraint with constitutional accountability.

The Need to Reconsider the Legal Framework

• The controversy points to the need for greater clarity in two areas.
• First, the relationship between Section 33-A and Form 26 should be expressly clarified so that candidates and Returning Officers know precisely which criminal matters require disclosure.
• Second, the Supreme Court may need to clarify the boundaries of Article 329(b).
• The objective should not be to permit routine judicial intervention but to determine whether narrowly defined exceptions exist for cases involving patent illegality or lack of jurisdiction.

The Way Forward

• Harmonise Form 26 with ROPA to remove conflicting disclosure requirements.
• Clearly distinguish between complaints, criminal cases, framed charges and convictions.
• Establish uniform guidelines for Returning Officers dealing with alleged non-disclosure.
• Provide candidates a meaningful opportunity to clarify disputed information.
• Preserve the election-petition mechanism as the principal electoral remedy.
• Consider narrowly defined judicial review for manifest jurisdictional errors without disrupting elections.
• Ensure public access to candidate information while protecting the presumption of innocence.

Conclusion

• The Natarajan case raises issues extending beyond an individual nomination.
• It demonstrates the need to balance electoral transparency, candidate rights, delegated legislation, judicial restraint and constitutional accountability.
• Democratic elections require informed voters, but transparency must operate within clearly established law.
• Similarly, protecting electoral continuity should not eliminate safeguards against exceptional illegality.

About PFOS:

• PFOS (Perfluorooctane Sulfonate or Perfluorooctane Sulfonic Acid) is a synthetic chemical used to make products resistant to stains, grease, soil, and water.
• It is an organic perfluorinated compound, consisting of an eight-carbon backbone and a sulfonate functional group.
• It is part of a class of chemicals called per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs).
  • PFAS, also known as the Forever Chemicals, are a large chemical family of over 10,000 highly persistent chemicals that don’t occur in nature.
• PFOS is very stable in the environment and hard to break down. PFOS also moves easily through groundwater.
• PFOS is of particular concern because it can accumulate up the food chain in aquatic systems and can lead to high concentrations in predatory fish consumed by anglers.
• It can cause serious health effects, including cancer, endocrine disruption, accelerated puberty, liver and immune system damage, and thyroid changes.
• When and how has PFOS been used?
  • Starting in the 1940s, PFOS was used in many consumer and industrial products, including carpets, rugs, upholstered furniture, non-stick cookware, and leather products.
  • PFOS has also been present in some firefighting foams used at airports, firefighter training facilities, and military airfields.
• PFOS is listed under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs), subject to international restrictions and exemptions.

About Incendiamoeba cascadensis:

• It is a new species of amoeba.
• It was discovered in the geothermal streams of Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, United States.
• The name Incendiamoeba cascadensis translates to “fire amoeba from the Cascade mountain range”.
• It can reproduce at temperatures reaching 145°F (63°C), breaking the record for the most heat-tolerant eukaryote.
  • While some thermophilic bacteria and archaea have been found to grow at temperatures exceeding 100°C, the limit for eukaryotic survival has been estimated at 60°C based on previous sampling.
  • Archaea and bacteria have different cellular organization from eukaryotes.
  • Eukaryotic organisms, including animals, plants, fungi, amoebae, and many other microorganisms, contain a nucleus and other specialized cellular structures.
• cascadensis divides through mitosis, the process in which one eukaryotic cell produces two daughter cells.
• It can remain mobile at around 147°F (64°C) and recover after brief exposure to temperatures of approximately 158°F (70°C), although it does not reproduce normally at that temperature.
• It had an elongated, worm-like form and a compact, amoeboid shape with pseudopodia.
• How does the amoeba survive extreme heat?
  • Extreme heat can damage proteins and destabilise cell membranes.
  • The findings suggest that the organism has adaptations that help protect its proteins and membranes.
  • It can also change its shape and movement patterns in response to rising temperatures.
  • At higher temperatures, the amoeba forms a protective structure that helps it withstand short periods of extreme heat.
  • However, scientists have not yet identified the precise mechanisms responsible for its heat tolerance.