Why in news?

India’s rupee fell below the crucial ₹90-per-dollar mark, unsettling financial markets and raising broader macroeconomic concerns. The currency has now weakened over 5% this year.

Analysts say the rupee’s movement reflects both domestic and global pressures, including a strong US dollar and delays in the first tranche of the India–US trade agreement.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Rupee Breaches the 90-Per-Dollar Mark
• India’s Trade Deficit Shows Signs of Widening
• Uncertainty Over India–US Trade Deal Adds Pressure on the Rupee
• Foreign Investors Continue to Pull Out of Indian Markets
• RBI Allowing the Rupee to Weaken

Rupee Breaches the 90-Per-Dollar Mark

• The rupee slipped below the psychologically crucial ₹90-per-dollar level, unsettling markets and intensifying concerns over India’s macroeconomic outlook.
  • The ₹90 mark is a critical psychological threshold for the rupee. Once breached, it can trigger buy-stop orders and fuel sharper depreciation, pushing the currency toward ₹91 or beyond.
• The currency has fallen over 5% this year, and the breach reflects a cumulative build-up of pressures, not a single shock.
• Strong Domestic Fundamentals Haven’t Stopped the Slide
  • India’s macro indicators appear supportive:
    • Crude oil prices have eased
    • Inflation has dropped below 1%
    • GDP growth hit 8.2% in Q2
  • Yet the rupee continues to face sustained downward pressure, revealing a disconnect between strong domestic fundamentals and the currency trend.
• Foreign Outflows and Trade Deal Uncertainty Weigh on Sentiment
  • Persistent foreign portfolio investor (FPI) outflows, driven by profit booking and shifts to other markets, have drained liquidity and raised demand for the US dollar.
  • Meanwhile, delays in concluding the India–US trade deal have heightened uncertainty about future trade flows, tariff competitiveness, and the balance-of-payments outlook, dampening market confidence.
  • Exports remain under pressure, while a surge in gold imports during the festive season has amplified dollar demand.

India’s Trade Deficit Shows Signs of Widening

• India’s external sector is under growing pressure as early indicators point to a widening trade deficit — a situation where imports exceed exports, increasing demand for dollars and weakening the rupee.
• India’s merchandise exports fell 11.8% year-on-year in October 2025, dropping to an 11-month low of $34.4 billion. The decline was driven by:
  • Lower shipments to the US, a major export market
  • Higher US tariffs
  • A high base from strong export growth in 2024
• In contrast, imports surged 16.6% year-on-year to a record $76.1 billion in October 2025.
• Why the Trade Gap Is Widening?
  • The widening deficit is being shaped by:
    • Softening demand from major export markets
    • Strong domestic demand for imported goods
    • Unfavourable tariff conditions, especially with the US
    • Weak export competitiveness across major sectors
• Gold’s Role in Widening the Trade Deficit
• The biggest contributor was gold imports, which tripled to $14.7 billion amid festive-season demand.
• Surging gold prices and massive import volumes have become a key force shaping India’s trade dynamics.
• They have intensified pressure on the rupee, contributed to a widening trade deficit, and added stress to the overall balance of payments outlook.
• Implications for the Rupee and Economy
  • If these trends continue, India’s trade deficit is likely to worsen, putting additional pressure on the rupee, widening the balance-of-payments gap, and intensifying broader macroeconomic challenges.

Uncertainty Over India–US Trade Deal Adds Pressure on the Rupee

• Markets are increasingly worried as the long-awaited India–US trade agreement remains unresolved.
• Without a deal, analysts say, the rupee may act as a “pressure valve,” gradually weakening to offset tariff disadvantages faced by Indian exporters.
• Until a clear announcement is made, markets are likely to price in the uncertainty—with the rupee reflecting it most visibly.

Foreign Investors Continue to Pull Out of Indian Markets

• India’s equity markets have underperformed for over a year, prompting foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) to steadily withdraw funds.
• Since January 2025, FPIs have pulled out ₹1.48 lakh crore, exerting consistent downward pressure on the rupee.
• Why FPIs Are Selling Despite Strong Macro Indicators?
  • Although India’s macroeconomic backdrop appears stable, stock market performance tells a different story.
  • Over the past year, India has been one of the weakest performers among major global markets.
  • Despite occasional record highs, returns have significantly lagged those in faster-growing international markets.
  • As a result, investors have increasingly treated India as a liquidity source, redirecting capital to more profitable regions.

RBI Allowing the Rupee to Weaken

• There is growing debate over whether the RBI is intentionally letting the rupee depreciate.
• Many economists argue the central bank is not pushing the rupee down, but simply responding to global shifts and India’s current macroeconomic dynamics.
• They note that RBI has been selling dollars only to curb volatility, not to target a specific exchange rate.
• Behavioural Factors Driving Sentiment
  • According to experts:
    • Importers are buying dollars aggressively
    • Exporters are holding back, waiting for better rates
    • The dollar index is below 100, which should normally support the rupee
  • They note that RBI’s relative silence, combined with IMF criticism of the rupee’s movement, is fueling negative sentiment.
• RBI’s Soft-Touch Strategy
  • RBI appears to be conserving firepower:
    • Its forward book is already substantially drawn down, including in offshore NDF markets
    • It is using a measured approach, intervening only to prevent disorderly volatility, not to defend a specific level
  • This suggests a deliberate balancing act:
    • Allowing the rupee to find its market-determined level, while remaining poised to step in if the slide becomes excessively disruptive.

Why in news?

India is preparing to host President Vladimir Putin for a two-day visit, even as it faces punitive U.S. tariffs over its imports of Russian oil. President Putin is visiting India to attend 23rd India–Russia annual summit.

The visit underscores New Delhi’s intent to deepen ties with Moscow. Analysts say India views Russia as a crucial partner at a time when the U.S. appears unreliable and China increasingly hostile.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Putin’s India Visits: Then and Now
• India’s Defence Dependence on Russia: Shrinking but Still Significant
• India–Russia Oil Trade: From Discount Bonanza to Sanctions Pressure
• What to Expect from Putin’s India Visit
• India’s Strategic Balancing Between the West and Russia

Putin’s India Visits: Then and Now

• When Putin first visited India in October 2000, both countries were navigating turbulent times:
  • Putin was newly elected President.
  • India was under Western sanctions for Pokhran-II.
  • Russia was weakened after the Soviet collapse.
  • The U.S. dominated a unipolar world.
  • India–Pakistan tensions were high after Kargil and IC-814 hijack.
  • The visit came just months before the Red Fort attack (Dec 2000).
  • India and Russia were both struggling, albeit for different reasons.
• Putin’s 2025 Visit: Striking Parallels, Changed Realities
  • Putin’s upcoming visit (on December 4–5, 2025) — the 23rd annual summit — is his first since the Ukraine invasion (2022).
  • Today:
    • Russia faces sweeping Western sanctions.
    • India faces secondary U.S. sanctions and steep tariffs on Russian oil purchases.
    • India–Pakistan tensions have resurfaced after May 2025 clashes.
    • Delhi again saw a blast near the Red Fort.
  • Despite the parallels, both nations hold stronger positions than 25 years ago.
• India’s Evolving Global Alignments
  • In the past two decades, India has significantly expanded ties with the West:
    • Deep security and defence cooperation
    • Strong economic partnerships
    • Growing people-to-people engagement
    • Strategic alignment with the U.S. on the Indo-Pacific
  • At the same time, India has retained its defence partnership with Russia, a Soviet-era legacy, while gradually diversifying to other technology providers.
• Russia’s Changing Global Role
  • Russia is now more isolated due to the Ukraine war but remains strategically important for India:
    • Defence cooperation
    • Energy supplies
    • Diplomatic alignment on some geopolitical issues
  • Both countries, though facing external pressure, continue to pursue a relationship shaped by mutual strategic interests.

India’s Defence Dependence on Russia: Shrinking but Still Significant

• India has diversified its defence imports, but around 60% of its military equipment remains of Russian origin, requiring ongoing spares and maintenance.
• Key systems like the S-400 air defence system illustrate this reliance: Russia has delivered 3 of 5 batteries, and India now wants five more.
• However, the Ukraine war and Western sanctions have slowed Russia’s ability to supply equipment on time.
• While European analysts say sanctions have weakened Russia’s capacity to produce advanced systems, Moscow disputes this claim.

India–Russia Oil Trade: From Discount Bonanza to Sanctions Pressure

• After the Ukraine war began, India bought discounted Russian oil, helping keep domestic fuel prices stable.
• This pushed bilateral trade to a record $68.7 billion in FY 2024–25, but the balance is heavily one-sided — India exported just $4.9 billion, while imports, mostly oil, were $63.8 billion.
• Both countries had set a $100-billion trade target by 2030, but that goal is now uncertain.
• With U.S. tariffs, secondary sanctions from the U.S. and Europe, and shrinking cost advantages, Indian refiners are expected to cut Russian oil purchases.
• This shift jeopardizes the trade target and places India in a strategic bind between energy security and geopolitical pressures.

What to Expect from Putin’s India Visit?

• Putin’s visit to Delhi will be closely watched as India faces growing U.S. and European pressure over its ties with Russia.
• The trip will feature high optics — a private dinner, state banquet, bilateral talks, and a CEOs’ address — echoing the warm public gestures seen earlier between Modi and Putin.
• Substantive outcomes are expected, including:
  • Progress on a labour mobility pact
  • Movement on a trade deal with the Eurasian Economic Union
  • Potential new defence purchases, including additional S-400 systems and the latest Sukhoi aircraft
  • Expanded market access for Indian goods, from perishables to pharmaceuticals
• Overall, the visit is expected to reinforce strategic cooperation even as geopolitical pressures intensify.

India’s Strategic Balancing Between the West and Russia

• India seeks deeper ties with the US and Europe for technology, investment, and ambitious trade agreements.
• Yet Russia remains indispensable for long-term defence needs.
• Delhi is also wary of Russia’s “no-limits” partnership with China, especially with 50,000 Indian troops deployed along the tense India–China border.
• Maintaining a careful equilibrium between these major powers remains India’s core strategic challenge.

Why in the News?

• The Supreme Court has raised serious concerns over continued delays in victim compensation and non-compliance by private hospitals in offering free critical treatment to acid attack survivors, despite judicial orders issued more than a decade ago.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Acid Attack Cases (Judicial Intervention, Current Court Proceedings, Court’s Directions to Authorities, Implications, etc.)

Judicial Intervention in Acid Attack Cases

• Acid attacks in India have long prompted judicial attention due to their devastating physical, psychological, and economic impact on survivors, many of whom are young women.
• The Supreme Court initiated sustained oversight beginning in 2006, following the horrific case of Laxmi, who was attacked at the age of 15.
• In subsequent years, the Court issued landmark directives:

• Minimum Rs. 3 lakh compensation for survivors, with Rs. 1 lakh to be paid within 15 days of the incident.
• Free and immediate medical treatment in private hospitals, including medicines, food, and specialised care.
• Ban on the over-the-counter sale of acid to curb misuse.
• Designation of District Legal Services Authorities (DLSA) as criminal injuries compensation boards to streamline claims.

• Despite these orders, survivors continue to face procedural delays and denial of essential services.

Current Supreme Court Proceedings

• The present plea before the Supreme Court, filed by the Acid Survivors Saahas Foundation, argues that many survivors have either not received full compensation or were denied free critical care by private hospitals.
• The Bench acknowledged that these issues persisted despite “repeated judicial orders spanning years.”
• During the hearing, significant revelations came to light:

• Victims in several States, including Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh, received only the initial Rs. 1 lakh payout, with no support for expensive reconstructive surgeries.
• Private hospitals, in violation of Supreme Court directives, demanded full payment up front before admitting survivors.
• Incomplete compliance reports were being furnished, often listing aggregated payments rather than victim-wise details.
• As many as eight States and five Union Territories had not yet filed their affidavits explaining compensation delays.

• This prompted the Bench to emphasise the urgent need for system-wide accountability.

Supreme Court’s Directions to Authorities

• Strengthening Financial Accountability
  • The Bench ordered State Chief Secretaries to personally ensure that funds flow promptly from State governments to State Legal Services Authorities, and then onward to district bodies, enabling final payment to survivors.
  • It also highlighted the need for updated compensation amounts, recognising that the earlier fixed sum of Rs. 3 lakh is insufficient given rising medical costs and the need for multiple reconstructive surgeries.
• Ensuring Compliance by Private Hospitals
  • Principal Health Secretaries in States and UTs have been directed to ensure that private hospitals cannot deny free treatment, including critical and emergency care.
  • Any refusal would amount to a violation of Supreme Court orders and can attract criminal liability.
• Demand for Detailed Data from NALSA
  • NALSA informed the Court that approximately 484 crore had been disbursed as compensation between March 2024 and April 2025, but agreed to furnish a detailed report on State-wise and victim-wise distribution.
• Maintaining Transparent Records

• Names of victims
• Date of compensation applications
• Date of actual payment
• Remarks on delays or pending claims

Implications for Victim Rights and Governance

• The Supreme Court’s renewed push marks a critical attempt to ensure States honour their obligations toward one of the most marginalised groups.
• Acid attack survivors often face lifelong trauma, disfigurement, disability, and stigma, making immediate medical intervention and financial support indispensable.
• By directing personal accountability at the highest administrative levels and demanding data transparency from NALSA, the Court is reinforcing a rights-based framework where compensation and healthcare access are guaranteed entitlements, not discretionary support.

Context:

• Under the Paris Agreement, India must submit new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for the period up to 2035.
• India is on track to meet its previous commitments and now needs a comprehensive, economy-wide energy transition plan aligned with the net-zero 2070 target.
• The article outlines a seven-point agenda that should guide India's new NDCs.

Seven Pillars of India’s Energy Transition Strategy:

• Higher emissions intensity reduction target:
  • India will meet its 2030 target of 45% reduction in emissions intensity of GDP (2005 baseline).
  • Proposed 2035 target - 65% reduction.
  • With GDP projected to grow at 7.6%, total emissions will still rise but peak around 2035.
  • Announcing a peaking year enhances credibility, counters criticism of India as the “third-largest emitter”.
• Expanding non-fossil-fuel power capacity:
  • India has already met the target of 50% non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
  • New target - 80% non-fossil capacity by 2035.
  • Total power capacity to reach 1,600 GW by 2035. Of this, solar and wind, which are subject to intermittency, would be around 1,200 GW, raising their generation share from 13.5% currently to ~50% by 2035.
  • Energy storage capacity, which is less than 1 GW today, should reach approximately 170 GW by 2035.
  • The new solar and wind capacities would also require expansion of the grid infrastructure.
• Phasing down unabated coal:
  • No new unabated coal plants after 2030.
  • Coal generation capacity could rise from 255 GW at present, peak at 293 GW around 2030 and then decline gradually to 230 GW by 2040.
  • Some coal capacity can be retained by 2070, conditional on carbon capture and storage systems becoming cost-competitive.
  • Coal mining states (Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh) must prepare for transition via retraining, economic diversification, and social protection.
• Accelerating electrification of transport:
  • Railways: Achieved over 99% railway track electrification, but under 90% of the movement is currently electrically powered. Achieving near-100% electric traction by 2035, imply phasing out diesel locomotives.
  • Urban buses: 50% electric buses in city fleets by 2035.
  • Three-wheelers: Move from 50% to 100% electric within the next few years.
  • Set EV sales targets for all vehicle categories in consultation with manufacturers.
• Operationalising and strengthening the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS):
  • CCTS, which becomes operational in (April) 2026, can be part of new NDCs. The scheme will be reviewed at the end of two years based on experience.
  • It could be expanded over time to cover sectors currently excluded, e.g. power.
  • Start with lenient emission intensity targets, gradually tighten them to meet net-zero 2070 trajectory.
• Managing variability through electricity market reforms:
  • The higher share of renewables will imply much greater intraday and seasonal variability in electricity generation. This poses problems for grid management.
  • It will necessitate:
    • Battery and pumped storage,
    • Reforms in electricity pricing,
    • Shift from long-term power purchase agreements (PPAs) to exchange-based dynamic pricing,
    • Time-of-day tariffs for consumers.
  • A major effort will be needed to create acceptance by the public.
• Financing the transition:
  • Required investment: Approximately $62 billion annually during 2026–2035 (or about 0.84% of GDP per annum).
  • Sources: About 80% of this amount will come from domestic sources (savings, private investment). 20% (~$12.5 bn annually) from international finance, including MDBs for risk mitigation.
  • Need: A stable reform-oriented growth trajectory (Viksit Bharat vision) can attract foreign capital.

Institutional Strengthening:

• Strengthen inter-governmental and Centre–state coordination. Need an economy-wide transition plan, jointly executed by Centre, states, and private sector.
• Strong case for reviving the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (PMCCC) to -
  • Coordinate national action plan,
  • Ensure stakeholder alignment,
  • Review progress,
  • Adapt to technological changes.

Way Forward:

• Securing adequate financing, especially concessional funds.
• Submit NDCs reflecting the seven-pillared strategy, with conditionality linked to international finance.
• Managing employment and socio-economic impacts in coal regions.
• Adopt a phased, predictable approach to coal phase-down and renewable scale-up.
• Ensuring grid stability amidst high renewable penetration.
• Raising domestic manufacturing capacity for EVs, batteries, and solar components.
• Public acceptance of time-of-day tariffs and cost-reflective pricing.
• Deepen carbon markets, electricity market reform, and storage capacity expansion.
• Build resilience through skilling, diversification, and just transition measures.

Conclusion:

• India stands at a critical inflection point as it prepares its NDCs for 2035. The proposed seven-point agenda aligns India’s rapid economic growth with its long-term net-zero 2070 commitment.
• With coherent planning, adequate financing, and effective institutional mechanisms, India can pursue a just, credible, and ambitious energy transition while maintaining developmental priorities and global climate leadership.

Context

• India’s growing engagement with the global clean-energy and high-technology economy has restored attention to an often-overlooked truth: mining alone does not create prosperity.
• The recently approved ₹7,280-crore rare-earth magnet scheme and the new G-20 framework on critical minerals reflect an acknowledgment that value creation lies not in extraction but in refining, processing, and manufacturing.
• As geopolitical tensions reshape supply chains, especially amid intensifying U.S.–China trade frictions, India’s reliance on foreign processing capacity has exposed deep vulnerabilities.

The Strategic Gap in India’s Critical Mineral Chain

• India has spent the past decade reforming its mining sector through amendments to the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act.
• A study by the Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) finds that although India mines seven critical minerals important for clean energy and defence, copper, graphite, silicon, tin, titanium, rare earths, and zirconium, refining capacity for all of them remains inadequate.
• Domestic graphite purity levels fall short of battery requirements; rare earths are processed only into oxides rather than refined metals; and domestic tin supply meets a mere fraction of national demand.
• Without addressing these processing deficits, India risks undermining not only its energy transition but also its ambitions in sectors such as pharmaceuticals, automobiles, telecommunications, and semiconductors.

A Global Chokepoint Dominated by China

• China controls more than 90% of rare-earth and graphite refining, about 80% of cobalt processing, and around 70% of lithium chemical production.
• This dominance has periodically been used as geopolitical leverage, most notably when China imposed controls on rare-earth magnets, lithium-ion batteries, graphite anodes, and processing technologies in 2025.
• Although the restrictions were later eased, the episode exposed the fragility of global supply chains and highlighted the strategic significance of processing technologies.
• Other countries have responded swiftly. The U.S.–Japan and U.S.–Australia critical mineral partnerships directly tie financial incentives to domestic refining and processing capacity.
• These developments offer India a clear lesson: processing strength is now an essential component of economic security, industrial competitiveness, and geopolitical leverage.

Five Pathways to Building India’s Processing Capacity

• Transform Centres of Excellence into Hubs of Applied Innovation
  • India’s nine Centres of Excellence (CoEs) under the National Critical Mineral Mission must become engines of industrial innovation.
  • Rather than focusing solely on academic research, they must prioritise technologies that can reach commercial readiness quickly.
  • High-purity compounds, advanced refining methods, and efficiency-enhancing processes should be core priorities.
  • Collaboration between IITs, NITs, industry players, and think tanks is essential to accelerate the path from laboratory research to market deployment.
• Recover Minerals from Secondary Resources
  • India generates vast quantities of mineral-rich industrial by-products, coal fly ash, red mud, zinc residues, and steel slag.
  • These waste streams hold significant quantities of rare earths, gallium, cobalt, and vanadium. Pilot projects have already demonstrated recovery potential, but scaling them requires policy support.
  • Embedding recovery units in proposed Critical Minerals Processing Parks and offering incentives for extracting minerals from waste could simultaneously enhance mineral security and reduce environmental burdens.
• Build a Skilled Workforce for Advanced Metallurgy
  • Critical mineral processing demands specialised hydrometallurgical and advanced refining expertise, not traditionally taught in India’s metallurgical programmes.
  • A national effort to train technicians, engineers, and researchers is necessary.
  • Leveraging the NCMM’s skilling allocation to develop new curricula, training academies, and apprenticeship programmes will help create a large, modern workforce capable of supporting processing hubs across mineral-rich states like Odisha, Gujarat, and Jharkhand.
• De-risk Private Investment Through Demand Assurance
  • Critical-mineral markets are notoriously volatile, discouraging long-term private investment.
  • To counter this, India could adopt mechanisms similar to U.S. price-guarantee models that ensure stable demand for domestic producers.
  • A national mineral stockpile that acts as a market-maker, buying during downturns and releasing during surges, would help stabilise prices.
  • Government procurement norms could also require strategic sectors to source a portion of their materials domestically, ensuring consistent demand for Indian refiners.
• Link Mineral Diplomacy with Domestic Processing Strength
  • India’s overseas acquisitions in Argentina, Zambia, and elsewhere are important, but raw ore access alone offers limited leverage.
  • True influence comes from processing expertise. By demonstrating reliable high-purity refining capabilities, India can shift from transactional buyer-seller arrangements to deeper co-investment partnerships.
  • Initiatives like the Australia-Canada-India Technology and Innovation Partnership indicate the potential of such alliances.
  • Including processing technologies in bilateral and multilateral trade dialogues, through G-20, BRICS, and IPEF, can further solidify India’s role in global critical-minerals governance. 

Conclusion

• China’s recent restrictions make a compelling argument: control over processing equates to control over technology, industry, and power.
• For India, the question is no longer whether it possesses adequate mineral reserves but whether it can convert those minerals into high-purity materials essential for modern technologies.
• If India can bridge its processing gaps, the country will not only secure its clean-energy transition but also build resilient industrial supply chains across defence, electronics, automotive manufacturing, and pharmaceuticals.

Context

• The Supreme Court of India’s decision in CREDAI vs Vanashakti (November 18, 2025), delivered by a 2:1 majority, marks a significant and troubling shift in India’s environmental jurisprudence.
• By recalling its own May 2025 judgment that had struck down ex post facto environmental clearances (ECs), the Court has reopened the possibility for developers to retrospectively legalise projects built in violation of the law.
• The majority justified this reversal on the grounds of public interest, claiming that disallowing such clearances could disrupt or dismantle completed projects.
• This logic, however, turns illegality into its own justification, subordinating environmental rule of law to administrative convenience.

Circular Logic and the Normalisation of Illegality

• Central to the majority’s reasoning is the assertion that requiring prior ECs may cause hardship when projects are already built.
• This approach effectively treats the violation as the rationale for excusing the violation, making compliance appear optional.
• What was designed as a mandatory safeguard becomes a flexible post-hoc formality.
• This stands in stark contrast to the Court’s long-standing position that environmental protection must be anticipatory, anchored in Article 21’s guarantee of the right to a healthy environment, the precautionary principle, and doctrines of intergenerational equity.
• The review judgment signals a shift from principle to expediency. By treating completed construction as an overriding factor, it allows economic momentum to dictate environmental legality.
• Justice Ujjal Bhuyan’s dissent highlights this danger, emphasising that bending the law to accommodate violations erodes the very framework created to prevent ecological harm.

The Original Judgment: Returning to First Principles

• The May 2025 judgment authored by Justice A.S. Oka had rejected both the 2017 and 2021 government notifications permitting retrospective ECs.
• It grounded its reasoning in the evolution of India’s environmental governance, beginning with the Stockholm Conference of 1972, the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986, and the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) frameworks of 1994 and 2006.
• These legal instruments established prior environmental scrutiny as a central pillar of ecological regulation.
• The original ruling underscored that public hearings, expert appraisal, and scientific evaluation are meaningful only when conducted before construction begins.
• It reaffirmed that preventing irreversible harm is the essence of environmental regulation, and that ex post facto approvals defeat this purpose.
• The Court relied on precedents such as Common Cause vs Union of India (2017), which declared retrospective clearances inherently detrimental, and the M.C. Mehta line of cases, which insisted on prior approval even for lease renewals.

The Review Judgment: A Retreat into Expediency

• The review judgment reframes the central question: not whether environmental harm must be prevented in advance, but whether enforcing prior scrutiny inconveniences those who have already broken the law.
• Justice Bhuyan’s dissent identifies this shift as a clear retreat from decades of jurisprudence. If violations can be regularised through fines, compliance loses its binding force.
• Developers may proceed without an EC, confident that post-facto validation will replace meaningful scrutiny.
• This approach weakens both the deterrent value of environmental regulation and the credibility of judicial oversight.
• By undoing a carefully reasoned judgment rooted in precedent, the Court signals a willingness to allow economic considerations to override ecological mandates, even when violations are blatant and deliberate.

Consequences for Environmental Governance

• The implications of the review judgment are considerable.
• First, it hollows out the EIA process, reducing public participation, expert appraisal, and scientific evaluation to perfunctory exercises if projects can later be regularised.
• Second, it effectively renders compliance voluntary, diminishing the regulatory authority of the state and weakening enforcement mechanisms.
• Most troubling is the message this sends at a time of escalating climate risk and ecological fragility. India faces intensifying floods, heatwaves, and biodiversity loss, yet the ruling further dilutes the already fragile tools of environmental accountability.
• An institution long regarded as a leader in environmental protection now appears willing to bend foundational safeguards to accommodate unlawful development.

Conclusion

• As the Court prepares to hear the matter again, the stakes extend beyond the validity of two notifications.
• At issue is the credibility of India’s environmental rule of law, and the integrity of constitutional commitments to ecological protection.
• Restoring the primacy of prior environmental scrutiny is essential not only to prevent irreversible harm but also to reaffirm the legitimacy of governance.
• The forthcoming hearings offer an opportunity to correct course and ensure that environmental law remains a shield against harm, not a mechanism for post-hoc rationalisation.

About Bonda Tribe

• The Bondas are exclusively found in the Malkangiri district of Odisha and are mostly concentrated in the Khairaput block of the district.
• It is a particularly vulnerable tribal group (PVTG) and one of the oldest tribes of India.
• They are also known as Bondo, Bondas, Bonda Paraja, and Bhonda.
• They are considered one of the first settlers in India, with their lineage tracing back to the Austroasiatic race.
• Language:
  • The Bonda people speak Remo, a language belonging to the Austroasiatic linguistic family.
  • This is distinct from mainstream Indian languages, making it difficult for outsiders to communicate with them.
• The Bondas are divided into two groups because of their distinct cultural practices:
  • The Lower Bondas, who live in the Malkangiri district in south Odisha and border Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and
  • The Upper Bondas, who live in the remote villages of the district’s hilly terrain.
• The social organization is hierarchical, with a council of elders that makes important decisions for the community.
• The Bonda people live in small villages organized around communal spaces where ceremonies and meetings take place.
• Bonda architecture is characterized by mud and thatched-roof houses, designed to adapt to the mountainous environment and climatic conditions.
• The art of the Bonda is expressed mainly through the creation of decorative tools and utensils, in addition to their colorful fabrics and jewelry.
• They have an interesting dressing style – ladies are semiclad and wear different sorts of rings and pieces of jewelry around their bodies, while the men wear deadly attires.
• Religion: The religion of the Bonda people is animistic, focused on the worship of nature and ancestral spirits.
• Occupation:
  • Their economy is based mainly on subsistence agriculture, hunting, and gathering.
  • They are known for their unique practice of shifting cultivation called dangar chas.
  • They grow crops like paddy, millet, pulses, and vegetables.
• Only 6% of Bondas are literate. The life expectancy of the tribe is so low they are nearly extinct.

About Cold Wave:

• Cold waves are unusual weather occurrences caused by extremely low temperatures in the near-surface atmosphere.
• Their duration can range from several days to a few weeks, contingent upon the geography and climatic conditions of the region.
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) defines a cold wave as a rapid fall in temperature within 24 hours.
• This is distinguished by a marked cooling of the air, or with the invasion of very cold air, over a large area.
• As per IMD, a cold wave is considered when the minimum temperature of a station is 10°C or less for plains and 0°C or less for hilly regions.
  • A cold wave and severe cold wave is considered a negative departure from normal i.e., 4.5°C to 6.4°C and more than 6.4°C in hill stations,
  • Similarly, the departure in minimum temperature of ≤ 04°C and ≤ 02°C for plains is considered a cold wave and severe cold wave, respectively.
• Cold waves are predominantly experienced during the period December-February, when minimum temperatures drop to very low levels, especially over the northern parts of India.
• Health Risks:
  • Exposure to extreme cold can lead to frostbite, hypothermia, and other cold-related illnesses.
  • Non-freezing cold injuries, such as Immersion Foot—caused by prolonged exposure to cold, wet conditions—are also a risk.
  • In extreme cases, cold exposure may result in fatalities if adequate precautions are not taken.

About Chaprala wildlife sanctuary:

• It is located in the Gadchiroli district of Maharashtra.
• The Markhanda and Pedigundam hills flank the sanctuary from northeast and south, and the Pranhita River flows along its western boundary.
• It is located on the bank of the confluence of the Wardha and Wainganga rivers.
• During the monsoons, river water swells and enters the sanctuary.
• Additionally, several water bodies, including the Murgikunta, Raikonta, and Komatkunta tanks, further contribute to the sanctuary’s biodiversity.
• Vegetation: It is dominated by southern tropical dry deciduous forests interspersed with grasslands.
• Flora: The dominant tree species include teak, Arjun, salai, mahua, bel, dhawada, tendu, sissoo, and semal.
• Fauna:
  • It is inhabited by Tiger, Leopard, Wild boar, Sloth bear, Wild dogs, Langurs, Blackbuck, Spotted Deer, Sambar, Jackal, Mongoose, etc.
  • The sanctuary also features a distinctive riparian ecosystem that supports a diverse aquatic fauna, including fish, prawns, and turtles.

Key Facts about Striped Grassbird:

• It is a species of bird in the Locustellidae family.
• Scientific Name: Megalurus palustris
• Distribution: It is widely found across South and Southeast Asia, including China, India, Pakistan, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, Philippines, Malaysia and Indonesia.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Least Concern.