Why in news?

Recently, seven elephants were killed when the Delhi-bound Rajdhani Express hit a herd in Assam’s Hojai district. The impact derailed the locomotive and five coaches, but no passengers were injured.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Elephant Deaths on Railway Tracks: Scale and Causes
• Preventing Elephant–Train Collisions: Why Crossings Matter
• Using Technology to Prevent Elephant–Train Collisions

Elephant Deaths on Railway Tracks: Scale and Causes

• India is home to over half of the world’s Asian elephant population, and train collisions have emerged as a major human-caused threat to their survival.
• Railway accidents are among the leading anthropogenic causes of elephant deaths in the country.
• Alarming Mortality Data
  • Between 2010 and 2020, at least 1,160 elephants died due to non-natural causes.
  • Electrocution was the biggest killer (741 deaths), followed by train hits (186 deaths).
  • Notably, electrocution is often linked to high-voltage overhead railway lines, indirectly tying rail infrastructure to multiple causes of death.
• Impact of Linear Transport Infrastructure (LTI)
  • Railways, roads, and canals cutting through forests fragment elephant habitats.
  • Such infrastructure can trap herds, restrict access to food and water, and increase stress, negatively affecting long-term health and survival.
• Night-Time Collisions and Behavioural Factors
  • Studies show that most train–elephant collisions occur at night.
  • Male elephants are disproportionately affected, as they cross tracks more frequently, especially during crop-harvest seasons when they engage in crop-raiding, increasing exposure to railway lines.

Preventing Elephant–Train Collisions: Why Crossings Matter?

• According to the Handbook to Mitigate the Impacts of Roads and Railways on Asian Elephants (2023) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most effective strategy is avoiding elephant habitats and migration corridors while planning infrastructure.
• Mitigation measures are not substitutes for careful route selection, but are necessary when avoidance is impractical.
• Wildlife Crossing Structures: The Core Solution
  • Well-designed wildlife crossing structures, combined with fencing, can reduce wildlife mortality by up to 98%.
  • These crossings form the backbone of effective mitigation strategies for roads and railways cutting through elephant landscapes.
• Types of Crossings and Design Principles
  • Crossings can be underpasses (beneath bridges or flyovers) or overpasses (over tunnels or green bridges).
  • The choice depends on terrain and animal behaviour. For elephants, openness is critical—they avoid confined spaces.
  • The handbook recommends minimum heights of 6–7 metres, adjusted for crossing length, to ensure usage.
• Placement Based on Elephant Movement
  • Where and how many crossings are built matters as much as design.
  • Camera traps and GPS telemetry are used to map elephant movement and identify collision hotspots.
  • These data guide the optimal placement of crossings.
• Fencing as a Support Tool
  • Strategic fencing along high-risk stretches prevents elephants from straying onto tracks and gently channels them toward designated crossings, enhancing the effectiveness of the entire mitigation system.

Using Technology to Prevent Elephant–Train Collisions

• Role of Early-Warning Systems - Alongside habitat avoidance and physical measures like crossings and fencing, technology-based early-warning systems are emerging as effective non-structural solutions to reduce elephant–train accidents by alerting train operators in advance.
• Types of Sensor-Based Technologies - Early-warning systems can be locomotive-based or ground-based. Locomotive systems use Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) cameras, capable of detecting obstructions up to 750 metres, even in poor visibility.
  • Ground-based systems deploy cameras, acoustic, or seismic sensors at known elephant crossing points.
• AI and Machine Learning as Game Changers - Earlier, these systems were limited by the massive data they generated and difficulties in distinguishing real threats from false alarms.
  • Artificial intelligence and machine learning now allow faster, more accurate analysis, greatly improving reliability and response time.
• Indian Railways’ Pilot Initiatives
  • Indian Railways has begun deploying AI-based early-warning systems, though adoption remains limited.
  • In 2023, the Northeast Frontier Railway pioneered AI monitoring to protect elephants, followed by a similar rollout along the Kerala–Tamil Nadu border in 2024.
  • Early results from these pilots have been encouraging, suggesting strong potential for wider implementation.

Why in news?

The Securities Markets Code (SMC), 2025, tabled in Parliament, proposes a sweeping overhaul of India’s securities regulation framework. It aims to strengthen investor protection, reduce compliance burdens, improve regulatory governance, and promote ease of doing business.

The Bill grants greater powers to Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), decriminalises minor violations, and bolsters market infrastructure institutions.

Crucially, it consolidates three existing laws—the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956, the SEBI Act, 1992, and the Depositories Act, 1996—into a single, comprehensive code.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• What the Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 Replaces?
• Key Provisions of the Securities Markets Code, 2025
• Aligning India’s Securities Law with Global Best Practices

What the Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 Replaces?

• The Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 proposes to merge and replace three existing securities laws—the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 (SCRA), the SEBI Act, 1992, and the Depositories Act, 1996.
• These decades-old statutes contain overlapping and redundant provisions that no longer align with today’s technology-driven, complex markets.
• The consolidation—first announced in Budget 2021—aims to move toward a single, principle-based framework that reduces interpretative conflicts and improves legal certainty.
• Stronger and More Representative Regulator - Under the Code, the board of Securities and Exchange Board of India will expand from 9 to 15 members, adding representatives from the Central Government, the RBI, and more whole-time members to strengthen governance and expertise.
• Tighter Conflict-of-Interest Norms - While earlier laws required disclosure of pecuniary interests, the new Code broadens the scope to include family members’ interests, mandating disclosure and recusal to enhance transparency and integrity in decision-making.
• Investor-Centric Additions - The Code formally incorporates an Investor Charter, which earlier had no explicit statutory backing. It also introduces a statutory Ombudsman as an independent grievance redressal authority, distinct from enforcement wings—addressing a long-standing gap in investor protection.

Key Provisions of the Securities Markets Code, 2025

• Strengthening SEBI’s Governance
  • The Code empowers the government to remove SEBI Board members for conflicts of interest or convictions involving moral turpitude.
  • It mandates disclosure of direct or indirect interests and expands the Board from 9 to 15 members, adding Central Government and RBI representation and more whole-time members.
• Easier, Proportionate Compliance
  • Contraventions are reclassified into two buckets.
  • Lesser violations (including fraudulent and unfair practices) are decriminalised and attract only civil penalties, while market abuse—serious misconduct harming market integrity—may invite both civil penalties and criminal action.
  • This aims to reduce compliance burden while preserving deterrence.
• Stronger Investor Protection
  • The Code requires Securities and Exchange Board of India to specify an Investor Charter, standardise grievance redressal across intermediaries and issuers, and appoint Ombudsperson(s) for time-bound resolution.
  • It also opens public consultations to investors, improving transparency and participation.
• Simplified Rules for Regulated Entities
  • A consolidated registration framework is proposed for intermediaries and pooled investment vehicles.
  • Stock exchanges, clearing corporations, and depositories are brought under a single code, with SEBI allowed to delegate registration functions to MIIs and SROs to streamline oversight.
• Better Inter-Regulatory Coordination
  • The Bill enables coordination among regulators to ease listing of other regulated instruments and improve interoperability among Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs), supporting smoother market operations, improved investment climate, and stronger market-making.

Aligning India’s Securities Law with Global Best Practices

• The Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 incorporates international best practices by strengthening regulatory governance, accountability, and transparency.
• It introduces regulatory impact assessments, ensures arm’s-length separation between investigation and adjudication, establishes an Ombudsperson for investor grievances, and enables inter-regulatory coordination.
• Experts note that by combining enhanced penalties, clearer adjudication, and greater regulatory flexibility for innovation, the consolidation of multiple laws into a single code marks a significant step toward a modern, globally aligned securities framework.

Context:

• The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) proposed new Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL) in January 2024 to ensure adequate rest for pilots and enhance passenger safety.
• However, repeated delays, selective regulatory relaxations, and alleged political influence culminated in a massive operational crisis at IndiGo in December 2025, when over 1,000 flights were cancelled, stranding thousands of passengers.
• The episode has raised serious concerns about regulatory capture (when regulators act in favour of the industry they regulate rather than the public), monopoly abuse, aviation safety, and governance failures in India’s civil aviation sector.

Background - FDTL and IndiGo’s Dominance:

• FDTL norms aim to prevent pilot fatigue, a globally recognised aviation safety risk.
• IndiGo allegedly ignored DGCA notifications, failed to recruit or train pilots, and continued aggressive scheduling.
• Pilot complaints were disregarded, and court cases were filed.
• DGCA repeatedly postponed implementation, allegedly favouring IndiGo.
• Final implementation was ordered only under court directions, effective July 1 and November 1 (in phased manner), nearly two years after proposal.

The IndiGo Meltdown:

• On December 5, over 1,000 IndiGo flights were cancelled. Thousands of passengers were stranded nationwide.
• The crisis exposed operational fragility, poor workforce planning, and regulatory complacency.

Market Structure and Monopoly Concerns:

• Market capture: IndiGo controls about 65% of India’s aviation market. Tata Group airlines (Air India) hold less than 30% market share.
• Passenger volume: It grew from 4 crore (2004) to 40 crore (2025), but airlines reduced from 8 to 2 major players.
• Concerns: This reflects monopolisation and regulatory capture, where regulators protect private profit over public interest.

Political Economy Angle:

• Political donations: Rs 58 crore by InterGlobe Aviation via electoral bonds (mainly to the ruling party).
• Alleged nexus: Between donations, regulatory leniency, and delayed safety compliance.
• Control over the pilot training: Acquisition of Flight Simulation Technique Centre (FSTC) by Adani Group raised concerns about control over the pilot training ecosystem, especially given India’s need for 30,000 pilots in 15 years.

Global Comparison - Southwest Airlines Crisis (USA):

• What happened: December 2022 winter storm triggered cancellations. Over 16,000 flights cancelled, 2 million passengers stranded.
• Root causes: Outdated, inflexible rostering and IT systems. Ignored internal warnings from pilots’ union.
• Regulatory response:
  • US Senate investigation - $140 million fine by US Department of Transportation (DOT), $600 million reimbursement to passengers.
  • The airline estimated total losses, both direct and indirect, to be nearly $1 billion.
  • Southwest re-evaluated its systems and committed to major resilience-focused upgrades.
• Outcome: By early 2025, Southwest regained operational reliability.
• Lesson for India: Strong, independent regulation ensures accountability and system resilience.

Key Issues Highlighted Amid Indigo Meltdown:

• Regulatory failure: Selective enforcement of safety norms. Weak accountability of DGCA leadership.
• Monopoly abuse: Dominant market share enabling fare manipulation and safety compromises.
• Passenger exploitation: Removal of fare cap led to exorbitant prices (e.g., after the Odisha train accident, airlines reportedly charged as much as Rs 1,00,000 for a Chennai-Bhubaneswar ticket). Fare cap reimposed only after crisis (December 5).
• Governance deficit: Lack of an independent aviation regulator. Executive-controlled DGCA under Aircraft Act, 1934.

Way Forward:

• Immediate measures: Accountability of political and bureaucratic leadership. Independent DGCA inquiry with time-bound reporting. Financial penalties on IndiGo to fund passenger compensation.
• Legal and regulatory actions:
  • The Competition Act: It empowers the government to impose penalties of up to 10% of the company’s average turnover over the last three years. It empowers the government to impose a structural remedy to break up a monopoly.
  • The Consumer Protection Act: Initiate suo motu action to impose penalties.
  • Redistribution of airport slots to promote competition.
• Structural reforms:
  • Establish an autonomous Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) through an Act of Parliament (as proposed in 2012), on the lines of the US FAA.
  • Parliamentary oversight via a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) to examine regulatory lapses and political funding nexus.
• Fare regulation: Introduce price bands or permanent fare caps in monopolistic or emergency situations to protect consumers.

Conclusion:

• The IndiGo meltdown is not merely an operational failure but a systemic governance crisis rooted in regulatory capture, monopoly dominance, and weak institutional accountability.
• Global experience shows that strong, independent regulators and stringent penalties are essential to safeguard passenger interest and aviation safety.
• For India, restructuring aviation regulation and restoring public trust must become immediate policy priorities to ensure that rapid growth does not come at the cost of safety and equity.

 Why in the News?

• The Union government is exploring the introduction of data exclusivity in the pharmaceutical sector, raising concerns about delayed access to affordable generic medicines and the future of India’s generics-driven drug industry.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Data Exclusivity (Concept, Pharmaceutical Model & Role of Genetics, Affordable Medicines, Govt’s Approach, Implications, Way Forward, etc.)

Understanding Data Exclusivity

• When a pharmaceutical company develops a new drug, it must submit extensive clinical trial data to the drug regulator to prove the medicine’s safety and effectiveness.
• Traditionally, once a drug’s patent period ends, other manufacturers are allowed to produce generic versions using abbreviated approval processes based on bioequivalence studies.
• Data exclusivity changes this system. It grants the innovator company exclusive rights over its clinical trial data for a fixed period.
• During this time, regulators are not allowed to rely on this data to approve generic versions, even if the patent has expired.
• As a result, generic manufacturers must either wait for the exclusivity period to end or conduct their own costly clinical trials.
• This protection works alongside patents, but it is distinct from them. While patents protect the invention, data exclusivity protects the underlying test data.

India’s Pharmaceutical Model and the Role of Generics

• India’s pharmaceutical sector is globally known for its generic drug manufacturing capacity.
• Nearly 90% of Indian pharmaceutical companies focus on generics rather than on developing new molecules. This model has ensured:

• Affordable medicines for domestic patients
• A strong export presence in developing countries
• India’s reputation as the “pharmacy of the Global South”

• Crucially, India’s drug laws currently do not provide data exclusivity, which allows generic companies to enter the market immediately after patent expiry.

Government’s Current Approach

• According to the report, the government has recently held inter-ministerial and industry-level consultations involving the Commerce Ministry, the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), the pharmaceuticals department, and the health ministry to examine how data exclusivity could be implemented.
• The move is reportedly linked to trade negotiations, particularly with the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), and the expectation that stronger intellectual property protections could attract large-scale foreign investment.
• However, the Health Ministry has officially stated that there is no proposal from its side to introduce data exclusivity, indicating divergence within the government.

Impact on Access to Affordable Medicines

• Introducing data exclusivity could have serious consequences for public health and the affordability:

• Delayed entry of generics even after patent expiry
• Higher drug prices due to an extended market monopoly
• Reduced availability of life-saving medicines for low-income populations

• A key concern is that data exclusivity can protect even off-patent drugs, allowing innovator companies to retain exclusivity beyond the standard 20-year patent term. This can effectively extend monopolies without fresh innovation.

Implications for India’s Generic Industry

• Experts argue that data exclusivity may weaken India’s generics-led growth model.
• Since most Indian firms do not invest in original drug discovery, requiring them to conduct full clinical trials would significantly raise costs and reduce competitiveness.
• It could also undermine patent challenges and compulsory licensing, tools that India has used to balance innovation with public health needs.
• Past cases, such as court-approved generic production of expensive rare-disease drugs, may become harder if regulatory approval itself is blocked.

Role of the Drug Regulator

• The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) has issued a notice suggesting that current regulations create an “uneven playing field” between original drug developers and generic manufacturers.
• Critics argue that this framing indirectly supports a data exclusivity-based regulatory approach, without openly stating so.
• Public health activists have warned that such regulatory incentives could lead to:

• Evergreening of patents
• Unnecessary clinical trials
• Delays in access to cheaper medicines
• Expansion of monopolies over traditional or existing drugs

Way Forward

• India currently has no international legal obligation to introduce data exclusivity. Any move in this direction must balance:

• Innovation incentives
• Trade and investment goals
• Public health priorities
• Constitutional commitments to affordable healthcare

Context

• India’s engagement with Africa has entered a renewed and strategically significant phase, shaped by global economic uncertainty and changing geopolitical realities.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visits to African countries in 2025 underscore Africa’s growing importance in India’s foreign economic policy.
• While India and Africa share long-standing cultural and political ties, their relationship is now increasingly driven by economics.
• Amid restructuring global supply chains and the emergence of a multipolar world order, Africa has become central to India’s long-term economic aspirations.

The Global Context: Uncertainty in Traditional Markets

• A key driver of India’s intensified focus on Africa is rising uncertainty in traditional Western markets.
• In FY24, around 40% of India’s exports were directed to the United States and the European Union, exposing India to risks from economic slowdowns, protectionism, and policy volatility. Diversifying export destinations has therefore become imperative.
• Africa, with its expanding population, growing consumer markets, and industrial potential, offers a viable alternative for reducing dependence on the West.

Current Trade Dynamics and Comparative Disadvantages

• India is Africa’s fourth-largest trading partner, with bilateral trade nearing $100 billion, yet its presence remains limited compared to China.
• China’s trade with Africa exceeds $200 billion, accounting for over 21% of Africa’s imports, with a strong concentration in high-value industrial goods such as machinery, electrical equipment, and semiconductors.
• In contrast, India’s exports remain dominated by petroleum products, pharmaceuticals, rice, and textiles, reflecting a lower degree of industrial integration.
• This imbalance highlights the need for India to move beyond traditional exports and strengthen its manufacturing and technology footprint.

A Five-Pillar Strategy for Deeper Engagement

• Reducing Trade Barriers
  • The first pillar focuses on reducing trade barriers through preferential trade agreements and comprehensive economic partnerships, particularly with African regional economic communities.
  • Deeper engagement with the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) can provide Indian exporters access to a more integrated continental market.
• Value Added Manufacturing and Joint Ventures
  • The second pillar emphasises transitioning from low-value commodity exports to value-added manufacturing and joint ventures.
  • Establishing manufacturing units in Africa offers Indian firms dual advantages.
  • Preferential access to Western markets through favourable tariff regimes and direct participation in Africa’s growing industrial base.
  • Better utilisation of incentives offered by African governments remains critical to achieving this shift.
• Scaling Up Trade Finance
  • The third pillar prioritises scaling up trade finance and Lines of Credit, especially to support micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs).
  • African markets present greater entry opportunities for MSMEs than highly competitive Western economies.
  • However, limited access to finance, high perceived risk, and insufficient policy focus constrain their participation.
  • Measures such as local currency trade, joint insurance pools, and improved credit access could significantly enhance MSME engagement.
• Infrastructure, Services, and Connectivity
  • The fourth pillar focuses on reducing freight and logistics costs through investments in port modernisation, hinterland connectivity, and India–Africa maritime corridors.
  • Improved infrastructure is essential to making trade competitive and sustainable.
• Digital Co-Operation and People to People Connect
  • The fifth pillar stresses the importance of services trade, digital connectivity, and people-to-people ties.
  • India’s strengths in information technology, healthcare, professional services, and skill development position it as a valuable partner for African economies.
  • Expanding services exports can generate high value and stimulate goods trade, though existing policy frameworks require substantial improvement to realise this potential.

Investment and the Role of the Public Sector

• Sustained engagement with Africa also depends on stronger investment ties.
• Currently, Indian investments are distorted by financial flows routed through Mauritius, often aimed at tax optimisation rather than productive investment.
• Bureaucratic hurdles, political instability, and high financing costs further deter private firms.
• In this context, Indian public sector units can play a catalytic role, particularly in mining, mineral exploration, infrastructure, renewable energy, and critical technologies, helping de-risk markets and attract private investment.

Conclusion

• India’s engagement with Africa must move beyond transactional trade toward long-term, sustainable partnerships.
• As global supply chains realign and economic power becomes more distributed, Africa will remain central to India’s global ambitions.
• The moment is ripe for India to recalibrate its economic diplomacy, strengthen institutional mechanisms, and deepen its economic footprint across the continent.
• Achieving this will require not only ambition but also effective execution, policy coherence, and sustained political commitment.

Context

• The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), enacted in 2005 during Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh’s first tenure, marked a watershed in India’s welfare policy.
• Rooted in Article 41 of the Constitution, which directs the State to secure the right to work, MGNREGA was designed as a rights-based legislation, not a discretionary scheme.
• Shaped through extensive public consultations and passed unanimously by Parliament, it evolved into the world’s largest social security programme and one of the most rigorously studied.
• Recent policy changes, however, represent a systematic dismantling of its legal, financial, and democratic foundations, threatening rural livelihoods and India’s constitutional ethos. 

MGNREGA: A Rights-Based and Transformative Intervention

• MGNREGA was conceived as a demand-driven guarantee of employment, obligating the State to provide work when demanded. This legal entitlement empowered rural households, particularly landless labourers, by enhancing bargaining power and raising agricultural wages.
• Its decentralised framework, aligned with the 73rd Constitutional Amendment, entrusted Gram Sabhas with planning, implementation, and social audits, fostering transparency, accountability, and grassroots democracy.
• Over two decades, MGNREGA reduced distress migration, strengthened wage security, and empowered panchayati raj institutions.
• Its significance was most evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, when it served as a crucial lifeline alongside the National Food Security Act.
• Persistently high demand for work continues to underline its indispensability for sustaining rural livelihoods. 

Demolition of MGNREGA in Stages

• Undermining the Legal Guarantee
  • The most damaging shift has been the elimination of the legal guarantee of work.
  • Employment is no longer an enforceable right but a bureaucratic provision controlled by the Union government.
  • The scheme’s coverage is now restricted to rural areas as notified at the Centre’s discretion, weakening its universal applicability.
  • Equally damaging is the replacement of uncapped, demand-based funding with pre-determined budgetary allocations.
  • This change caps employment days at the State level, subordinating people’s needs to central fiscal priorities and effectively nullifying the guarantee of work.
• Financial Centralisation and the Burden on States
  • The revision of the cost-sharing ratio from 90:10 to 60:40 has transferred a significant financial burden to States.
  • Previously, strong central funding encouraged States to respond to demand without fiscal hesitation.
  • Under the new arrangement, any expenditure beyond the Union’s capped allocation must be borne entirely by States, many of which already face acute financial stress.
  • This discourages States from providing employment, hollowing out the scheme from within.
  • The removal of year-round employment, through the identification of 60 no-work days during peak agricultural seasons, further undermines labour security.
  • By weakening alternative employment options, these changes erode workers’ bargaining power and suppress wage growth, particularly troubling at a time when agricultural employment has risen for the first time since Independence.
• From Decentralisation to Centralised Control
  • MGNREGA’s decentralised architecture was central to its success. Gram Sabhas played a pivotal role in identifying, planning, and executing works, embodying the constitutional vision of local self-governance.
  • This has now been replaced by a top-down framework under the PM GatiShakti National Master Plan, which prioritises Union-level objectives over local needs.
  • This shift represents centralisation with a vengeance, undermining federalism and democratic participation.
  • Claims of increasing guaranteed employment from 100 to 125 days ring hollow. Capped budgets, reduced State incentives, delayed payments, and technological barriers make such expansion implausible.
  • These changes are consistent with a decade-long strategy of weakening MGNREGA through stagnant allocations and administrative throttling.

MGNREGA and the Broader Assault on Rights

• The dismantling of MGNREGA forms part of a broader rollback of India’s rights-based framework.
• The weakening of the Right to Information, dilution of land acquisition and forest rights, erosion of the National Green Tribunal, undermining of the Right to Education, and attempts to deny farmers minimum support price protections reflect a consistent pattern.
• Together, these measures signal a retreat from constitutional commitments to social justice, accountability, and democratic rights.
• In this context, the erosion of the right to work is not merely administrative reform but a fundamental departure from the Constitution’s welfare vision, with severe implications for inequality and rural distress.

Conclusion

• MGNREGA embodied Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of Sarvodaya, the welfare of all, and translated constitutional ideals into lived realities for millions.
• Its effective dismantling constitutes a collective moral and constitutional failure, with profound human and economic consequences.
• Defending MGNREGA is inseparable from defending India’s rights-based democracy, federalism, and social justice.
• At stake is not merely a programme, but the constitutional promise of dignity, work, and welfare for all citizens.

About Dark Eagle Long Range Hypersonic Weapon (LRHW):

• It is a hypersonic missile system of the United States Army.
• It is a non-nuclear, ground-launched hypersonic missile weapon system.
• The missile component of the LRHW is reportedly being developed by Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman.
• Built for strategic attack missions, the weapon is capable of penetrating anti-access/area-denial (A2/AD) defenses, suppressing long-range enemy fires, and delivering rapid precision effects when and where they are needed.
• Features:
  • It is a land-based hypersonic weapon designed to strike targets at distances of up to 2,735 kilometers.
  • It comprises a mobile ground-based battery equipped with Transporter Erector Launchers (TEL), supported by command and control elements.
  • The system’s ballistic missile features two stages, one of which includes a hypersonic glide warhead (C-HGB), an unpowered but highly maneuverable vehicle capable of reaching extreme speeds of Mach 17, making interception particularly difficult.
  • The missile climbs to the edge of space, flies through the upper atmosphere out of reach of most enemy defenses, then maneuvers toward its target.
  • Each hypersonic missile is powered by a solid-fueled two-stage rocket booster.

About Kavachi Volcano:

• It is a shallow submarine volcano located in the South Pacific Ocean, south of the remote Vangunu Island in the Solomon Islands.
• It sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire, a tectonically active region.
• It is one of the world's few active and visible undersea volcanoes.
• It has been erupting on a regular (though thoroughly unpredictable) basis for many years, including several temporary island-building events.
• Eruptions typically produce steam plumes, ash, lava, and water discoloration due to volcanic gas release.
• The new islands formed are not large enough and coated with solid lava flows to be able to resist wave erosion.
• Notable eruptive activity has been recorded repeatedly since it was first documented in 1939.

About Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB):

• The Sashastra Seema Bal, previously known as the Special Service Bureau, was established in 1963 after the Sino–Indian Conflict of 1962.
• It was created with the objective of guarding India’s international borders with Nepal and Bhutan.
• SSB is a part of the Central Armed Police Forces (CAPF) and falls under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
• Role of SSB:
  • The primary responsibility of SSB is to protect the safety of India’s designated borders with neighbouring nations Nepal and Bhutan.
  • To foster an understanding of security among people residing in those border communities.
  • To stop smuggling, illegal immigration, and other transnational crimes.
  • To stop unlawful entry or exit on or from the Indian Border.
  • To implement social responsibility initiatives in the relevant jurisdiction, for instance, establishing schools, buildings, restrooms, and roads by a border region development plan.
  • To perform any additional tasks, such as UN missions, Law & Order missions, Counter The uprising Operations, Election duty, the central government may assign.
• Organisation: Headed by a Director General (IPS officer or senior CAPF officer); includes infantry-style battalions, specialized units (engineering, signals, medical, dog squads), and training centers.