Why in news?

• Internet access in India depends on the Internet Service Provider (ISP), not just in terms of price and quality, but also which websites are accessible.
• ISPs block websites based on government and court orders, but implementation differs, leading to varying blocklists across providers.
• Under the Information Technology Act, 2000 (Sections 69A and 79), the government has the power to order such blocks.
• ISP licensing agreements require providers to comply with blocking orders, which are confidential and binding.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Internet Censorship in India
• How ISPs Block Websites: DNS and Protocols
• What the Data Shows: Inconsistent and Opaque Website Blocking

Internet Censorship in India

• Internet censorship refers to the control or suppression of what can be accessed, published, or viewed on the internet.
• In India, it sits at the intersection of free speech, national security, public order, and digital governance.
• Constitutional Basis
  • Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of speech and expression, which courts have extended to online speech.
  • Article 19(2) permits reasonable restrictions on grounds of sovereignty, security of state, public order, decency, and morality.
  • Internet shutdown or censorship must pass the test of reasonableness and proportionality.
• Legal Framework
  • Information Technology Act, 2000
    • Section 69A — Empowers the Central Government to block websites/content in the interest of sovereignty, security, public order, etc.
    • Section 66A (now struck down) — Criminalised "offensive" online speech; declared unconstitutional in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015).
    • Section 79 — Safe harbour provision for intermediaries.
  • IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021
    • Mandates traceability of message originators (threatens end-to-end encryption).
    • Requires significant social media intermediaries to appoint Grievance Officers.
    • Controversial for placing heavy compliance burdens on platforms.
  • Telecom Act, 2023
    • Replaces the Telegraph Act; consolidates powers related to telecom suspension, including internet services.
• Types of Censorship Practiced in India
  • Website Blocking — Blocking of URLs/domains by ISPs on government orders (e.g., pornographic sites, piracy sites, separatist content).
  • Internet Shutdowns — Suspension of mobile/broadband internet in specific regions during unrest (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur).
  • Social Media Takedowns — Government directives to platforms to remove specific posts, accounts, or content.
  • App Bans — Banning of Chinese apps (e.g., TikTok, PUBG Mobile) under Section 69A citing national security.

How ISPs Block Websites: DNS and Protocols

• The Internet works through protocols like Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Transport Layer Security (TLS), and Domain Name System (DNS) among others. ISPs can use any of these to block websites.
• DNS (Domain Name System) is the first step when accessing a website, converting domain names into IP addresses.
• ISPs often block websites at the DNS level using DNS poisoning, where incorrect addresses are returned instead of the real ones.
• As a result, users are redirected away from the actual website.
• Most Indian ISPs prefer DNS blocking because it is cheap and easy to implement without advanced inspection.

What the Data Shows: Inconsistent and Opaque Website Blocking

• Scale of the Study - Analysis of 294 million domains across six ISPs in 2025 found 43,083 blocked domains.
• Lack of Uniform Blocking - Only 1,414 domains were blocked by all six ISPs. ISPs do not block the same websites despite receiving similar orders.
• Variation by Content Type - Majority of blocked sites include: Piracy, peer-to-peer sharing, pornography, and gambling. Blocking is inconsistent across ISPs for these categories.
• Higher Consistency in Sensitive Cases - Domains related to terrorism and militancy show higher blocking consistency. Some cases (e.g., Weibo, The Kashmir Walla) show uniform enforcement.
• Arbitrary and Uneven Implementation - ISPs engage in arbitrary blocking practices. Lack of standard guidelines leads to a haphazard blocking system.
• Issue of Opacity - The blocking system is non-transparent. There is a need for disclosure of blocked domains, except in sensitive cases.

Why in news?

• On 1 April 2026, the government launched a CBSE curriculum on Computational Thinking (CT) and AI for Classes 3–8.
• The aim is to build skills like logical reasoning, problem-solving, and pattern recognition, and introduce students to AI in daily life.
• The programme will begin from the 2026–27 academic session and is seen as a step toward future-ready education.
• While the initiative is ambitious and welcome, its success depends on proper implementation and sequencing.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• The Missing Foundation: LSRW Skills in AI Learning
• What the Data Reveals: Learning Deficit Across Schools
• A Promise and a Deadline: Literacy Goals vs Reality
• What the Curriculum Assumes: Dependence on Foundational Skills

The Missing Foundation: LSRW Skills in AI Learning

• Importance of LSRW Skills - Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing (LSRW) form the core of meaningful learning. They are the cognitive foundation for understanding, processing, and expressing ideas across all subjects, including AI.
• CT Curriculum Built on Language - Computational Thinking (CT) is integrated across subjects, not a standalone discipline. It is delivered through language, requiring students to read, interpret, and respond to text.
• Learning Activities Depend on Comprehension - Curriculum includes puzzles, pattern exercises, and problem-solving tasks embedded in textbooks. Students must interpret texts and analyse information to complete these tasks.
• Assessment Requirements - Evaluations involve: Written tests with CT questions; Group activities; Teacher observations. All require basic reading and comprehension skills.
• Core Concern - The CT curriculum effectively functions as a literacy-based learning tool. Students who lack grade-level reading ability will face it as a reading challenge rather than a thinking exercise.

What the Data Reveals: Learning Deficit Across Schools

• Evidence from ASER 2024 - The ASER 2024 report shows that over half of Class 5 students in government schools cannot read a Class 2-level text. This basic reading benchmark has remained unchanged since 2006.
• Persistent Literacy Gap - Even after five years of schooling, many children fail to achieve foundational reading skills. This highlights a serious gap in basic learning outcomes.
• Not Limited to Rural or Government Schools - The assumption that private or urban schools perform better is incorrect. Learning deficits exist across different school types.
• Findings from PARAKH 2024 - The national assessment covering 23 lakh students found that:
  • Urban private school students performed worse than rural counterparts at Grade 3 level.
  • Government school students scored higher in Language and Mathematics.
• Implication for CBSE Students - Students entering CBSE classrooms are not insulated from the literacy crisis. They are directly affected by the same foundational learning challenges.

A Promise and a Deadline: Literacy Goals vs Reality

• NIPUN Bharat Mission - Launched in 2021 to ensure foundational literacy and numeracy by Grade 3. Target year set as 2026–27.
• Current Status of Learning Levels - ASER 2024 shows improvement since 2022. However, more than half of Class 5 students still cannot read a Class 2-level text.
• Gap Between Target and Achievement - The literacy goal remains incomplete as of the latest data. Foundational learning levels are still below expectations.
• Overlap with CT Curriculum Launch - The CT curriculum is introduced in the same year the literacy target was to be achieved. This creates a mismatch between policy goals and ground reality.

What the Curriculum Assumes: Dependence on Foundational Skills

• Focus on Higher-Order Cognitive Skills - The CT curriculum aims to develop logical, critical, and analytical thinking. These are advanced skills that depend on basic comprehension.
• Comprehension as a Prerequisite - Abstract reasoning cannot develop without the ability to understand written text and instructions. Weak reading skills hinder the development of computational thinking.
• Increasing Complexity in Class 6 - From Class 6, assessments include: Project presentations; Reflective journals; Written assignments. AI concepts are also introduced at this stage.
• Risk of Early Learning Breakdown - Students struggling with reading in earlier classes may fail to build foundational CT skills. The gap becomes visible later, indicating an early breakdown in the learning pipeline.
• Assessment Challenges - Evaluation methods require strong written and oral skills (LSRW). Without these, assessments measure literacy gaps instead of computational thinking ability.

The Unfulfilled Parallel: LSRW and CT

• Foundational Priority of LSRW - Foundational literacy and numeracy were identified as the highest priority under NEP 2020. NIPUN Bharat was launched to achieve this goal.
• Gap Between Policy and Outcomes - Despite policy focus, LSRW has not been achieved at scale. Data shows that foundational learning gaps still persist.
• CT as the New Priority - Computational Thinking (CT) is now being promoted as a key educational priority. The curriculum is: Well-designed and ambitious; Developed by leading academic institutions; Based on activity-based and ethical approaches.

The Sequencing Question: Literacy Before AI

• Global Experience - Countries like Finland, Singapore, and South Korea introduced AI education after achieving strong foundational literacy. Curriculum reforms followed literacy, not preceded it.
• India’s Current Position - India has institutional momentum with initiatives like NIPUN Bharat. ASER 2024 shows improvement in reading levels, though gaps remain.
• Need for Careful Sequencing - The issue is not whether to introduce CT and AI, but whether students are ready. Foundational literacy must support the rollout.
• Ground Reality in Classrooms - Students in Class 3 face CT tasks alongside existing reading gaps. The effectiveness of the curriculum depends on the child’s readiness.

Conclusion

A curriculum’s success depends on learning foundations. Addressing CT without fixing literacy gaps does not achieve true transformation.

Context:

• Climate change discussions usually focus on sea-level rise, extreme weather, and economic impacts, but often ignore its health consequences.
• It is creating a broad medical crisis by worsening existing diseases and enabling new ones to emerge.
• In India, frequent urban flooding (e.g., Mumbai) leads to waterlogging, which:
  • Damages sanitation systems
  • Contaminates drinking water
  • Increases diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis A, and leptospirosis
• At the same time, drought-affected areas face water scarcity, forcing people to use unsafe water, leading to: Higher cases of diarrhoeal diseases; Chronic dehydration.
• Thus, climate change is intensifying health risks through both excess water and water scarcity.
• This article highlights how climate change has evolved into a major public health emergency in India, impacting disease patterns, air quality, food security, and overall human health.

Expanding Disease Risk Due to Climate Change

• Changing Seasonal Patterns
  • Shifts in temperature and rainfall are increasing infections, allergies, and vector-borne diseases.
  • Longer pollen seasons and altered cycles are expanding disease timelines and spread.
• Wider Geographic Spread
  • Diseases are reaching new regions where populations lack immunity.
  • Health systems in these areas are often unprepared to handle outbreaks.
• Rise in Mosquito-Borne Diseases
  • Warmer conditions are making new regions suitable for mosquito breeding.
  • In Delhi-NCR, dengue cases now peak later (November instead of September) due to prolonged favourable conditions.
• Rise in Mosquito-Borne Diseases
  • Warmer conditions are making new regions suitable for mosquito breeding.
  • In Delhi-NCR, dengue cases now peak later (November instead of September) due to prolonged favourable conditions.

Climate Change Threats to Human Health

• Rising Air Pollution and Emissions - Higher temperatures increase air conditioning use, leading to more greenhouse gas emissions. This raises levels of PM2.5, which harms multiple organs.
• Impact on Respiratory Health - Fine particles penetrate deep into the lungs, causing: Inflammation and reduced lung function; Worsening of asthma and COPD.
• Cardiovascular and Kidney Effects - PM2.5 damages blood vessels, increasing risks of Hypertension, heart attack, and stroke. Long-term exposure also harms kidneys, leading to reduced filtration and chronic kidney disease.
• Heat Stress and Feedback Loop - Greenhouse gases trap heat, intensifying warming. Heat stress forces the heart to work harder, increasing cardiovascular strain and related illnesses.
• Vulnerable Populations and Heat Impact - Outdoor workers and those without shelter face higher risks. Regions like Odisha, Telangana, and Vidarbha report rising heatstroke deaths. Rising night temperatures reduce recovery time after heat exposure.
• Impact on Infant Health - Extreme heat and pollution are linked to: Preterm births; Low birth weight.

Impact of Climate Change on Food Security and Health

• Disruption of Agriculture and Food Supply - Extreme weather and unseasonal rains disrupt crop cycles and reduce agricultural productivity. This leads to food shortages and rising prices.
• Declining Nutritional Quality - Reduced crop quality and higher costs create: Micronutrient deficiencies; Chronic malnutrition, especially among children.
• Impact on Dairy and Nutrition - Heat stress reduces milk production in cattle. This affects infant and child nutrition.
• Health Consequences - Food insecurity leads to: Weakened immunity; Increased disease vulnerability, particularly among children and the elderly.

Climate Change as a Present Health Crisis

• Climate change is no longer a distant threat but a current public health issue in India.
• It is a multifaceted challenge, and recognising it as a medical emergency is essential for urgent action.

Why in the News?

• India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam has achieved criticality, marking a key milestone in the nuclear programme.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About FBR (Concept, Significance, Criticality, etc.)
• News Summary (Criticality in Kalpakkam FBR, Significance)

About Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

• A FFBR is a type of nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than it consumes.
• Unlike conventional reactors, which use thermal (slow) neutrons, FBRs use fast neutrons to sustain nuclear fission. This allows efficient utilisation of fuel and enhances energy output.
• FBRs typically use plutonium-based fuel, often in the form of Mixed Oxide (MOX), along with fertile materials such as uranium-238. These fertile materials are converted into fissile material (like plutonium-239) during reactor operation.
• A key feature of FBRs is the “breeding” process. In this process, non-fissile material is transformed into fissile material through neutron absorption, thereby creating additional fuel.
• FBRs are crucial for countries like India that have limited uranium reserves but abundant thorium resources.
• They form the second stage of India’s three-stage nuclear programme, enabling the transition toward thorium-based energy systems.

Significance of Fast Breeder Reactors

• Fast breeder reactors play a critical role in ensuring long-term energy security.
• They significantly improve fuel efficiency by extracting more energy from available uranium resources.
• They also reduce nuclear waste by utilising materials that would otherwise remain unused.
• In India’s context, FBRs are essential for converting thorium into uranium-233, which is vital for the third stage of the nuclear programme.

Criticality in Nuclear Reactors

• Criticality refers to the state in which a nuclear reactor achieves a self-sustaining chain reaction.
• At this stage, each fission event produces enough neutrons to sustain further fission reactions without external intervention.
• Criticality is a crucial milestone in reactor commissioning. It indicates that the reactor core is functioning as designed and is ready to move toward power generation.
• There are three states associated with criticality:

• Subcritical state, where the reaction dies out over time.
• Critical state, where the reaction is stable and self-sustaining.
• Supercritical state, where the reaction increases rapidly.

• Achieving controlled criticality is essential for the safe and efficient operation of nuclear reactors.

News Summary

• India’s 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu has attained criticality, marking a defining step in the country’s nuclear energy programme.
• The reactor is located at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research and is operated by Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI), a public sector enterprise under the Department of Atomic Energy.
• The PFBR is a sodium-cooled, pool-type fast breeder reactor that uses mixed oxide (MOX) fuel consisting of uranium-238 and plutonium-239. It is designed to generate more fissile material than it consumes, thereby enhancing fuel sustainability.
• Achieving criticality means that the reactor has initiated a self-sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction, indicating readiness for eventual power generation.
• The project is a key component of India’s three-stage nuclear programm
  • In the first stage, Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) produce plutonium.
  • In the second stage, fast breeder reactors like PFBR use this plutonium to generate additional fissile material.
  • The third stage aims to use thorium to produce uranium-233 for long-term energy security.
• India is now among a select group of countries possessing advanced fast breeder reactor technology, with Russia being the only other nation operating commercial-scale FBRs.
• The reactor also incorporates important safety features such as a negative void coefficient, which reduces reaction rates in case of overheating, enhancing operational safety.
• Overall, the achievement of criticality at Kalpakkam marks a significant step toward India’s goal of developing a closed nuclear fuel cycle and reducing dependence on imported uranium.

Context:

• The recommendations of the Sixteenth Finance Commission (2026–31), accepted by the Union government, have sparked serious concerns regarding the future of fiscal federalism in India.
• While retaining the states’ share at 41%, the Commission’s structural changes in devolution, grants, and fiscal design indicate a shift toward centralisation and discretionary control.

Key Changes in Fiscal Architecture:

• Shrinking effective devolution:
  • Although the nominal share of states remains 41%, the effective share has declined from about 36% to 32%.
  • This is attributed to expansion of cesses and surcharges (outside divisible pool), and reduced scope of statutory transfers.
  • Several states (especially smaller and northeastern states) face reduced tax shares (e.g., about 15.5% drop for Northeast [NE] states).
• Alteration in horizontal distribution criteria:
  • Revised devolution formula has adversely impacted 14 states, particularly fiscally weaker ones.
  • The formula does not adequately account for the regional disparities, and the special needs of backward regions.
• Discontinuation of Statutory grants (Article 275):
  • Revenue deficit grants, sector-specific grants, and state-specific grants have been discontinued.
  • Traditionally, these grants ensured equity-based fiscal support, assistance for tribal welfare and special area administration.
• Rise of discretionary transfers (Article 282):
  • Increased reliance on discretionary grants, which is less transparent, conditional and performance-linked.
  • Marks a shift from the entitlement-based transfers to conditional transfers, and from predictability to uncertainty.
• Increased allocation to third tier:
  • Allocation of about ₹7.91 lakh crore to panchayats and urban local bodies, with 80% basic grants, and 20% performance-based grants.
  • While decentralisation is strengthened, it alters the constitutional balance by treating local bodies as parallel stakeholders in vertical distribution.

Constitutional Concerns:

• Misinterpretation of Article 275 vs Article 282:
  • Article 275: Statutory, need-based, and accountable grants to the States, charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
  • Article 282: Discretionary and non-binding grants to the States. The 16th Finance Commission’s approach of treating both (Statutory and Discretionary grants) as interchangeable undermines constitutional intent.
• Weakening of federal structure: Shift from equity-driven to efficiency-driven criteria, from State-centric to Centre-controlled transfers, undermining the autonomy of states, a core feature of the basic structure doctrine.
• Distortion in federal hierarchy: States (constitutional entities under Part VI) are being equated with the local bodies (products of 73rd & 74th Amendments). Risks diluting the federal compact.

Key Challenges:

• Rising regional inequality: Reduced support for fiscally weaker and special category states. Inadequate recognition of post-GST fiscal asymmetries.
• GST-induced fiscal distortions:
  • Shift to a destination-based tax regime, for instance, producer states lose revenue advantage.
  • The Finance Commission failed to address GST Council dynamics, IGST settlement issues, and the cost of tax collection disparities.
• Centralisation via cesses and schemes: Growing use of cesses and surcharges reduces the divisible pool. Expansion of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) increases conditionality.
• Weakening equalisation principle: Aggregated fiscal deficit (0.3% of GDP) used to deny the need for grants. It ignores State-specific needs, and the social justice obligations (for SC/ST welfare).

Way Forward:

• Restore equity-based transfers: Reintroduce Article 275 grants as equalisation grants, based on multi-dimensional criteria (poverty, SC/ST population, geography).
• Rationalise divisible pool: Bring cesses and surcharges partially into the divisible pool. Ensure true 41% devolution in practice.
• Align with GST realities: Incorporate consumption-based tax dynamics, IGST settlement reforms, and strengthen coordination with the GST Council.
• Balance decentralisation with federalism: Strengthen local bodies through states, not at their expense. Maintain a clear constitutional hierarchy.
• Enhance transparency and accountability: Limit excessive reliance on Article 282 discretionary grants. Ensure parliamentary oversight and predictability.

Conclusion:

• The Sixteenth Finance Commission’s recommendations mark a paradigm shift from cooperative to controlled federalism, privileging central discretion over constitutional guarantees.
• While fiscal efficiency and decentralisation are important, they must not come at the cost of equity, predictability, and state autonomy.
• A balanced approach—anchored in constitutional principles and responsive to evolving fiscal realities—is essential to preserve India’s federal spirit and unity in diversity.

Context

• The Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Amendment Bill, 2026 appears to have sparked confusion, fear, and serious concern in certain quarters.
• At its core lies a fundamental question: who determines an individual’s gender identity?
• The amendment shifts this authority away from the individual and places it in the hands of institutions, raising concerns about autonomy, dignity, and constitutional rights.

The Question of Gender Ownership

• For most cisgender individuals, gender identity is self-evident and never subjected to scrutiny. In everyday life, people simply declare their gender without verification or evaluation.
• However, the amendment imposes a different standard on transgender individuals by requiring them to prove their identity.
• This creates inequality and undermines self-identification, reinforcing a system where one group enjoys unquestioned freedom while another faces institutional barriers.

The Critique of Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Amendment Bill, 2026

• From Progressive Jurisprudence to Regression
  • The 2014 NALSA judgment established self-identification as a fundamental principle, recognising gender identity as an aspect of personal liberty and freedom of expression.
  • It aligned with constitutional guarantees such as equality, non-discrimination, and the right to life.
  • The 2019 Act, despite limitations, retained this principle and introduced welfare measures aimed at inclusion.
  • The 2026 amendment represents a clear regression. By introducing medical boards and bureaucratic certification, it replaces self-declaration with state control.
  • This shift weakens constitutional morality and reverses progress made in law, policy, and institutional practices.
• The Problem of Medicalisation and Bureaucratic Control
  • Gender identity cannot be determined through medical evidence or biomarkers.
  • It is a deeply personal experience, not subject to external validation. The requirement to undergo assessment by medical boards reflects a flawed understanding of gender.
  • Practical challenges further complicate the process.
  • Many districts lack functioning boards, and existing systems are already overburdened. In the absence of clear criteria, the process risks becoming arbitrary, invasive, and even abusive.
  • The possibility of physical examination threatens privacy, bodily autonomy, and human dignity. Such measures may discourage individuals from seeking recognition altogether.

Impact on Welfare and Accessibility and Mental Health Consequence

• Impact on Welfare and Accessibility
  • Instead of improving access to state support, the amendment introduces barriers that may reduce engagement with welfare systems.
  • Fear of scrutiny and humiliation could deter individuals from accessing healthcare, education, and employment support.
  • This undermines the purpose of inclusive governance and risks deepening social exclusion.
• Mental Health Consequences
  • The transgender community already faces significant vulnerability, including high rates of violence, harassment, and social rejection.
  • The introduction of additional layers of verification and suspicion is likely to intensify mental distress.
  • Uncertainty surrounding access to ongoing healthcare services further increases risk. Many individuals may avoid seeking help due to fear of invalidation or legal complications.
  • These conditions create the potential for a broader mental health crisis, particularly among vulnerable groups such as adolescents.

Some Other Problematic Aspects of the Amendment Bill

• Criminalisation and Ethical Dilemmas
  • The amendment introduces penalties for undue influence in matters of gender identity, creating serious risks for mental health professionals, educators, and community organisations.
  • In situations where families disagree, supportive guidance may be misinterpreted as coercion.
  • This creates an ethical dilemma, discouraging professionals from providing necessary care.
  • As a result, transgender individuals may be pushed away from formal support systems, increasing isolation and limiting access to affirmative care.
• Erasure of Identity Diversity
  • The amendment collapses distinctions between transgender, intersex, and hijra identities, ignoring their unique cultural and social contexts.
  • This erasure reduces visibility and fails to address specific needs.
  • Additionally, the lack of recognition for trans men highlights gaps in representation, further marginalising certain groups within the community.

Conclusion

• The amendment risks undoing years of progress by replacing self-identification with bureaucratic control and medical gatekeeping.
• Its implications extend beyond legal procedure, affecting mental health, access to welfare, and social inclusion.
• Addressing misuse, if any, should involve administrative reforms, not restrictions on identity.
• Policies must uphold constitutional values and ensure that governance frameworks promote inclusion, respect, and equality.
• Safeguarding the rights of all individuals requires reaffirming that gender identity belongs to the individual, not the state.