9K33 Osa-AK मिसाइल प्रणाली के बारे में:

• यह रूस द्वारा निर्मित अत्यधिक मोबाइल, कम ऊँचाई वाली, कम दूरी की सामरिक सतह से हवा में मार करने वाली रक्षा मिसाइल प्रणाली है।
• मूलतः 1960 के दशक में विकसित और 1972 में सोवियत संघ द्वारा तैनात किया गया ओसा-एके भारतीय सेना सहित विश्व भर की कई सेनाओं के लिए एक महत्वपूर्ण परिसंपत्ति बनी हुई है।
• पश्चिम में, इसको नाटो रिपोर्टिंग नाम "SA-8 गेको" से जाना जाता है।
• विशेषताएँ:
  • इसकी लंबाई लगभग 9.1 मीटर, चौड़ाई 2.78 मीटर और वजन 18 टन तक है।
  
  
  • इसका ऑल-इन-वन वाहन सेटअप, ट्रांसपोर्टर-इरेक्टर-लॉन्चर और रडार (TELAR) को मिलाकर, इसे स्वतंत्र रूप से हवाई खतरों का पता लगाने, ट्रैक करने और उनसे निपटने में सक्षम बनाता है।
  
  
  • यह वाहन 5 चालक दल के सदस्यों को ले जा सकता है और इसमें परमाणु, जैविक और रासायनिक (NBC) सुरक्षा प्रणाली लगी हुई है।
  
  
  • यह वाहन 6 मिसाइलों से सुसज्जित है, जो वाहन की छत पर लगी हुई हैं।
  
  
  • यह अधिकतम 12 किमी की सीमा तक के लक्ष्यों को निशाना बना सकता है।
  
  
  • यह अत्यधिक गतिशील है और तेजी से बदलते युद्ध वातावरण में खतरों का तुरंत जवाब दे सकता है।
  
  
  • यह पूरी तरह से उभयचर, हवाई परिवहन योग्य है और कई तरह की भू-स्थितियों में कार्य करने में सक्षम है।
  
  
  • सड़क पर लगभग 500 किमी की परास के साथ, इसे रणनीतिक तैनाती के लिए तेजी से विभिन्न क्षेत्रों में ले जाया जा सकता है।

About the Copper Plates

• These copper plates are written in Sanskrit and Kannada, using Nāgarī characters and are particularly significant as they were issued during the coronation of King Devaraya I.
• A unique feature of the seal is that it depicts Vamana instead of the customary Varaha, which was the traditional royal insignia of the Vijayanagara Empire.
• The plates are dated Saka 1328 (1406 CE), confirming the coronation date of Devaraya I.
• The plates provide a detailed genealogy of the Sangama Dynasty, tracing the lineage from Chandra, Yadu, and Sangama to Harihara, Kampa, Bukka, Mãrapa, and Muddapa.

About Sangama Dynasty

• The Sangama Dynasty was the founding dynasty of the Vijayanagara Empire, ruling from 1336 to 1485 AD.
• Established by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, this dynasty laid the foundation for one of the most powerful empires in South India.
• The rulers of this dynasty significantly strengthened administration, military power, and territorial expansion, making Vijayanagara a dominant political and cultural center.

Key Rulers of the Sangama Dynasty 

About Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI)

• Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) refers to investments made by foreign entities in financial assets such as stocks, bonds, and other securities of a country. It is distinct from Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), as it does not involve acquiring control over a business.

Key Characteristics of FPI:

• Passive investment: Investors do not participate in the management of the company.
• Short-term focus: Aims for capital appreciation rather than long-term strategic interests.
• Enhances market liquidity: Provides capital flow into financial markets, increasing efficiency and investment potential.
• Sensitive to market sentiments: FPI is highly volatile, as investors can quickly withdraw funds in response to economic or political instability.

FPI Policy in India:

• A foreign investor can hold up to 10% of the total paid-up capital of an Indian company without being classified as an FDI.
• If the holding exceeds 10%, it is reclassified as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI).
• Regulated by SEBI, ensuring compliance with financial laws.

Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) vs. FPIs

Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs) are a subset of FPIs and include large investment entities such as:

• Mutual Funds
• Pension Funds
• Insurance Companies
• Hedge Funds

Unlike individual FPI investors, FIIs typically adopt a more structured and strategic investment approach. However, all FIIs are considered FPIs, but not all FPIs are FIIs.

Key Differences Between FPI and FDI

About Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs)

• Alternative Investment Funds (AIFs) are privately pooled investment vehicles that gather capital from investors—both domestic and foreign—for specialized investments that differ from conventional investment instruments like mutual funds.

Key Features of AIFs

• Regulated by SEBI under the SEBI (Alternative Investment Funds) Regulations, 2012.
• Can be structured as a company, trust, or Limited Liability Partnership (LLP).
• Typically cater to high-net-worth individuals (HNIs) and institutional investors due to the high investment threshold.

Categories of AIFs

• Category I AIFs (Investment in Priority Sectors)
  • Focus on sectors that are considered socially or economically beneficial by the government and regulators.
  • Includes venture capital funds, angel funds, SME funds, social venture funds, and infrastructure funds.
• Category II AIFs (Diversified Investment Strategies)
  • Covers investment vehicles that do not fall under Category I or III.
  • These funds do not use leverage beyond operational needs.
  • Includes real estate funds, debt funds, private equity funds, and distressed asset funds.
• Category III AIFs (High-Risk, High-Return Investments)
  • Employ complex trading strategies and leverage, including investments in listed or unlisted derivatives.
  • Examples include hedge funds and Private Investment in Public Equity (PIPE) funds.
  • Unlike Category I and II AIFs, which are close-ended with a minimum tenure of three years, Category III AIFs can be open-ended or close-ended.

Key Facts about Chile

• Located in South America, Chile is a long, narrow country with an average width of 110 miles (~178 km).
• Borders:
  • North – Peru
  • Northeast – Bolivia
  • East – Argentina
  • West – Pacific Ocean
• Chile also has sovereignty over Easter Island, the Juan Fernández Archipelago, and other Pacific islands.

Physical Features

• The country is mountainous terrain dominated by the Andes Mountains (the most extended mountain range in the world).
• Atacama desert in the north – the driest non-polar desert in the world.
• Highest peak: Ojos del Salado (6,893 m), an active stratovolcano in the Atacama region.
• Prone to earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions due to its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.

Economic Importance

• Copper mining: Chile is the largest producer of copper globally. Copper is a key component in electronic devices, renewable energy systems, and electric vehicles.
• Lithium reserves: Part of the "Lithium Triangle" along with Argentina and Bolivia, a crucial region for battery production.
• Major rivers: The Loa River, originating from the Andes, is Chile’s longest river.

Political and Cultural Aspects

• Capital: Santiago
• Official Language: Spanish
• Government: Unitary Presidential Republic
• Cultural Influence: Strong European and Indigenous heritage, with Spanish colonial influences.
• Chile is regarded as the “Gateway to Antarctica” due to its geographical proximity.
• India and Chile have signed a Letter of Intent to enhance collaboration on Antarctic exploration and research.
• This aligns with India’s polar research ambitions, complementing its Antarctic and Arctic missions.

About the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG)

• The CAG of India is the head of the Indian Audit and Accounts Department (IA-AD) and is responsible for auditing government expenditures to ensure financial accountability.
• As per Article 148 of the Constitution of India, the CAG safeguards the public purse and monitors financial transactions at the Central and State levels.
• The CAG is one of the key pillars of Indian democracy, alongside the Supreme Court, Election Commission, and Union Public Service Commission (UPSC).
• The CAG’s powers and responsibilities are defined by the Comptroller and Auditor-General’s (Duties, Powers and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971, with amendments in 1976, 1984, and 1987.

Constitutional Provisions related to CAG

• Article 148: Defines the appointment, term, and conditions of the CAG.
• Article 149: Specifies the CAG’s duties and powers to audit government accounts.
• Article 150: Requires that government accounts be maintained as prescribed by the President on the CAG’s advice.
• Article 151: Mandates that CAG audit reports be submitted to Parliament and State Legislatures.
• Article 279: Grants the CAG authority to certify "net proceeds" of taxes and duties.
• Sixth Schedule: Requires the CAG to audit District and Regional Council accounts.

Appointment and Term of the CAG:

• Appointed by the President of India through a warrant under his hand and seal.
• Holds office for six years or until reaching the age of 65, whichever comes first.
• Takes an oath of office to perform duties impartially, without fear or favour.
• Can be removed by the President in the same manner as a Supreme Court judge, which requires a special majority resolution in both Houses of Parliament.
• Can resign at any time by submitting a resignation letter to the President.

Independence of the CAG:

• Cannot be removed at the President’s discretion; only constitutional procedures
• After completing tenure, the CAG cannot hold any further government office under either the central or state governments.
• Salary is determined by Parliament, equivalent to that of a Supreme Court judge.
• Administrative expenses (including salaries, pensions, and allowances) are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of India, meaning they do not require parliamentary approval.
• No minister can represent the CAG in Parliament or take responsibility for CAG’s actions.

Duties and Powers of the CAG:

• Audits the expenditure from the Consolidated Fund of India and State funds.
• Examines government corporations, public sector undertakings (PSUs), and other government-funded bodies.
• Certifies net proceeds of taxes and duties, ensuring financial accuracy.
• Audits debt, advances, and suspense accounts.
• Submits audit reports to the President, which are then presented in Parliament and examined by the Public Accounts Committee (PAC).
• Acts as an agent of Parliament, ensuring that public money is used legally and efficiently.
• Conducts propriety audits to assess whether government spending is wasteful or extravagant.

Difference Between CAG in India and the UK:

• The CAG of India does not control fund disbursement; it functions as an Auditor-General only.
• In contrast, Britain’s CAG acts as both Comptroller and Auditor-General, exercising direct control over fund releases.

CAG’s International Audit Responsibilities:

• International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (2022-2027): Ensures safe use of nuclear technology worldwide.
• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2020-2025): Audits operations aimed at achieving global food security

About INSV Tarini

• INSV Tarini is an indigenously built, 56-foot sailing vessel commissioned into the Indian Navy in February 2017.
• Built by: Aquarius Shipyard Ltd., Goa, under the Make in India initiative.
• Advanced features: It is equipped with a Raymarine navigation suite, satellite communication systems, and emergency steering mechanisms, allowing it to operate under extreme conditions.
• Symbolic naming: The vessel is named after the Tara-Tarini hill shrine in Odisha, which was historically revered by sailors for safe voyages. In Sanskrit, ‘Tarini’ means both boat and saviour.

About Navika Sagar Parikrama II

• The expedition was flagged off from Goa on October 2, 2024, by Chief of the Naval Staff, Admiral Dinesh K. Tripathi.
• Total Distance: The mission aims to cover 23,400 nautical miles (approximately 43,300 km) in eight months, sailing across three oceans and three major capes.
• Route Covered:
  • Fremantle, Australia
  • Lyttelton, New Zealand
  • Port Stanley, Falkland Islands (UK)
  • Cape Town, South Africa (final stop before returning to India)
• The mission is scheduled to conclude in May 2025, when INSV Tarini returns to Goa.

About Naini Lake:

• It is a natural freshwater lake of tectonic origin, located amidst Nainital city of Uttarakhand.
• Discovered in the early 1800s by the British, the Naini Lake also finds mention in the Skanda Purana as Tri-Rishi-Sarovar.
• The lake is in crescent or kidney shape, and has an outlet at the southeastern end.
• It covers a perimeter of 2 miles with a depth from 6m to 28 m.
• It is one of the four lakes in the Kumaon hills, the three others being Sattal Lake, Bhimtal Lake, and Naukuchiyatal Lake.
• Balia Nala is the main feeder stream of the lake. Other than this, 26 major drains, including the three perennial ones, feed it.
• Mallital is the name of the lake’s north end, while Tallital is the name of the southern one, which has a bridge with Gandhi’s statue and a post office on its sides.
  • It is the world’s only post office on a lake bridge.

About Vibe Coding:

• Vibe coding basically refers to using generative AI not just to assist with coding but to generate the entire code for an app.
• At its core, vibe coding is about communicating with AI in natural language to build apps.
• Users ask, or prompt, Large Language Model (LLM)-based models such as ChatGPT, to produce the code for an app or service, and the AI system does all the work.
• The term was coined by Andrej Karpathy, a skilled software engineer who was head of AI at Tesla and a founding engineer at OpenAI – the maker of ChatGPT.
• Vibe coding can help people with ideas for tools, apps, and services to make them a reality without the challenge of learning the specifics of a programming language.
• However, it can also be seen as a major security risk as it replaces experienced human coders with amateurs or untrained coders who give orders to AI chatbots instead of coding from scratch or understanding existing codebases.
  • Human project managers and coders precisely frame how the code needs to take shape in order to best serve a specific use case.
  • But an AI code generator may not understand the larger context of what it is creating.
  • In other words, a Gen AI tool may indeed produce the code that the user requested, but this generated code might be too slow to run, too expensive to maintain, and too long to scan regularly for security risks.

About 9K33 Osa-AK Missile System:

• It is a Russian-built highly mobile, low-altitude, short-range tactical surface-to-air defence missile system.
• Originally developed in the 1960s and fielded by the Soviet Union in 1972, the Osa-AK has remained a crucial asset for many armies around the world, including the Indian Army.
• In the West, the Osa is known by the NATO reporting name "SA-8 Gecko".
• Features:
  • It has a length of about 9.1 m, a width of 2.78 m, and a weight of up to 18 tonnes.
  • The Osa-AK’s all-in-one vehicle setup, combining the transporter-erector-launcher and radar (TELAR), enables it to detect, track, and engage aerial threats independently.
  • The vehicle can carry up to five crew members and is fitted with a nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) protection system.
  • It is armed with 6 missiles ready to fire, mounted on the roof of the vehicle.
  • It can engage targets up to a maximum range of 12km.
  • It is highly mobile and can quickly respond to threats in a rapidly changing combat environment.
  • It is fully amphibious, air transportable, and able to operate in a range of terrain conditions.
  • With a range of around 500 km on the road, it can swiftly relocate to different regions for strategic deployment.