Why in news?

The Supreme Court of India has expanded the definition of acid attack victims under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016, to include survivors who were forced to consume acid and suffered internal injuries even without visible scars.

The apex court ruled that this clarification would apply retrospectively from the date the law came into force. It also observed that existing punishments have not effectively deterred acid attacks, suggesting stronger measures such as shifting the burden of proof to the accused and making acid sellers co-accused.

The ruling came in response to a petition filed by acid attack survivor Shaheen Malik highlighting gaps in legal protection and state support.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Gap in the Law on Acid Attack Victims
• Why Addressing the Legal Gap Was Necessary?
• Constitutional Challenge to the RPwD Act Definition
• Rising Acid Attack Cases and Trial Backlog

Gap in the Law on Acid Attack Victims

• Narrow Definition Under the RPwD Act - The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act, 2016 recognises acid attack survivors as persons with disabilities. However, its definition focused mainly on victims who suffered visible disfigurement from acid attacks.
• Exclusion of Internal Injury Survivors - Under the law, survivors forced to ingest acid were excluded because the term “disfigured” was interpreted as referring only to external bodily injuries. This left many victims without access to legal recognition and state support.
• Severe Impact of Acid Ingestion - Acid ingestion causes serious internal injuries, burning the mouth, throat, food pipe, and stomach. Such injuries are often permanent and can lead to lifelong medical complications affecting eating, swallowing, and digestion.

Why Addressing the Legal Gap Was Necessary?

• Exclusion from the RPwD Act had serious consequences for survivors forced to ingest acid, as a disability certificate is essential for accessing financial aid, rehabilitation schemes, medical support, and other state benefits.
• The petition argued that the law unfairly excluded a group of victims who suffered equally severe harm, differing only in the method of attack—acid being administered instead of thrown.
• It described this as a case of “under-classification,” where similarly affected victims were denied equal legal protection and support.

Constitutional Challenge to the RPwD Act Definition

• Challenge Under Article 14 - The RPwD Act created an arbitrary distinction between victims of acid attacks based on the method of assault — throwing acid Vs. administering it — which violated Article 14 of the Constitution.
• Single Class of Acid Violence Victims - All victims of acid violence form a single class because the injuries, suffering, and disabilities caused are substantially similar, regardless of how the acid was inflicted.
• Conflict Between Criminal and Welfare Laws - The petition highlighted that Section 124 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2024 treats throwing and administering acid as the same offence with identical punishment. Therefore, excluding ingestion victims from welfare protections under the RPwD Act was termed legally inconsistent and arbitrary.
• Article 21 and Right to Dignity - The exclusion also raised concerns under Article 21, as survivors without disability certificates were denied access to compensation, rehabilitation, and medical support - essential for living a dignified life.
• Problem with Existing Disability Assessment - The disability assessment guidelines largely focus on visible disfigurement and mobility issues, leaving severe internal injuries caused by acid ingestion inadequately recognised.

Rising Acid Attack Cases and Trial Backlog

• The Supreme Court of India has expressed serious concern over delays in acid attack trials, calling prolonged proceedings a “mockery of the system.”
• Since December 2025, the Court has been monitoring pendency of such cases across the country.
• The Court observed an “alarming increase” in acid attack incidents since 2013 and questioned whether existing punishments are sufficiently harsh to deter such crimes.
• States with Highest Backlog
  • Compliance reports submitted before the Court revealed substantial pendency in several states:
    • Uttar Pradesh: 198 pending cases
    • West Bengal: 160 cases
    • Gujarat: 114 cases
    • Bihar: 68 cases
  • Some regions reported comparatively fewer pending cases:
    • Uttarakhand: 3 cases
    • Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh: 5 cases
• Broader Judicial Focus
  • The Court’s recent expansion of the definition of acid attack victims under the RPwD Act forms part of a wider effort to strengthen legal protection, improve victim support, and address systemic delays in acid attack prosecutions.

Why in news?

A day after the All India Trinamool Congress lost the West Bengal Assembly elections, Mamata Banerjee announced that she would not resign as Chief Minister, alleging that the election outcome resulted from a “conspiracy” rather than the people’s mandate.

She accused the winning party of misusing central forces to capture booths and manipulate the electoral process, and stated that her party would legally challenge the results while continuing its political struggle.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Can a Governor Remove a Chief Minister?
• Floor Test: Determining Majority Support in the Assembly
• What Happens After the Assembly’s Tenure Ends?
• What Happens Next After Electoral Defeat?

Can a Governor Remove a Chief Minister?

• Article 164(1) of the Constitution states that the Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor and holds office “during the pleasure of the Governor.”
• On a literal reading, this appears to give the Governor the power to remove a Chief Minister.
• Concerns in the Constituent Assembly
  • During debates in the Constituent Assembly, members expressed concern that such wording could enable arbitrary use of gubernatorial powers.
  • Mohammad Ismail Khan proposed replacing the phrase “during the pleasure” with a provision making ministers hold office only as long as they enjoyed the confidence of the Legislative Assembly.
  • However, B. R. Ambedkar clarified that in a parliamentary system, the Council of Ministers survives only while it enjoys majority support in the Assembly, even if not explicitly stated in the Constitution.
• Supreme Court’s Interpretation
  • Over time, the Supreme Court of India has interpreted the Governor’s powers as largely bound by the “aid and advice” of the Council of Ministers.
  • In A. G. Perarivalan v. State Through Superintendent of Police, the Court observed that the Governor generally acts as a constitutional head rather than exercising independent executive authority.
  • In practice, a Governor cannot arbitrarily dismiss a Chief Minister who continues to enjoy the confidence of the Legislative Assembly.
  • The real test of legitimacy remains majority support in the House.

Floor Test: Determining Majority Support in the Assembly

• A floor test becomes necessary when there is doubt about whether the Chief Minister still enjoys the confidence of the Legislative Assembly, especially if the Governor asks the Chief Minister to resign and considers inviting another leader to form the government.
• The floor test is a constitutional mechanism to verify majority support in the House. The Chief Minister must demonstrate the backing of more than half of the sitting MLAs.
• If the Chief Minister fails to secure majority support during the floor test, resignation becomes necessary.
• If no party or coalition can prove a stable majority after the floor test, the state may come under President’s Rule under Article 356 as a last resort.

What Happens After the Assembly’s Tenure Ends?

• Constitutional Provision - Article 172 of the Constitution states that a State Legislative Assembly normally continues for five years from the date of its first meeting, unless dissolved earlier. After five years, the Assembly automatically stands dissolved.
• Expiry of the West Bengal Assembly - According to the Election Commission, the present West Bengal Assembly began its term on May 8, 2021, and its tenure is scheduled to end on May 7.
• Formation of a New Government - After the Assembly’s tenure ends, the Governor initiates the process of constituting a new Assembly. Newly elected MLAs take oath, following which a new government is formed based on majority support in the House.

What Happens Next After Electoral Defeat?

• According to the experts, resignation after losing an Assembly election is largely a constitutional convention rather than a strict legal requirement.
• Even if a Chief Minister does not resign, the office automatically ceases once the Assembly’s tenure ends and the House stands dissolved.
• Possibility of Election Petitions
  • The election results can still be legally challenged through an election petition filed before the High Court within 45 days of the declaration of results.
  • Under the Representation of the People Act, 1951, grounds for challenge include corrupt practices and procedural violations during the conduct of elections.
• Scope for Writ Petitions
  • Apart from election petitions, writ petitions may also be filed if the integrity of the electoral process itself is questioned.
  • Allegations such as arbitrary deletion of voters from electoral rolls can be challenged as violations of fundamental rights.
  • Legal experts argue that large-scale irregularities affecting voter participation could invite judicial scrutiny, especially where constitutional rights and fairness of the democratic process are involved.

Why in News?

• The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) released the Crime in India 2024 and Accidental Deaths & Suicides in India (ADSI) 2024 reports, highlighting key trends in crime, cyber offences, suicides, economic crimes, and vulnerable sections of society.
• While India witnessed an overall decline in registered cognisable crimes in 2024, the reports underline a sharp rise in cybercrime, economic offences, child safety concerns, and drug overdose deaths.
• It also highlights persistent social vulnerabilities linked to unemployment, agrarian distress, and crimes against women.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Overall Crime Trends in India
• Surge in Cybercrime
• Rise in Economic Offences
• Crimes Against Women
• Crimes Against SCs and STs
• Child Safety and Juvenile Concerns
• Suicides and Social Distress
• Drug Overdose Deaths
• Crimes Against the State
• Key Challenges Highlighted by NCRB Data
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Overall Crime Trends in India:

• Decline in total crime rate:
  • India recorded 58.86 lakh cognisable crimes in 2024, marking a 6% decline compared to 62.41 lakh cases in 2023.
  • Crime rate per lakh population declined from 448.3 in 2023 to 418.9 in 2024.
  • Cases registered included:
    • 35.44 lakh under the IPC/Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS).
    • 23.41 lakh under Special and Local Laws (SLL).
  • Key interpretation: The decline suggests improved law enforcement and reporting efficiency in some categories, but emerging digital crimes are offsetting these gains.

Surge in Cybercrime:

• Sharp rise in cybercrime cases:
  • Cybercrime emerged as the fastest-growing category of crime in India.
  • For example, cybercrime cases increased by 17.9% from 86,420 (2023) to 1,01,928 (2024). Cybercrime rate rose from 6.2 to 7.3 per lakh population.
• Major motives behind cybercrime:
  • Cyber fraud dominates: 72.6% of cybercrime cases (73,987 cases) were related to cyber fraud.
  • Other motives of cybercrimes: Sexual exploitation (3,190 cases), extortion (2,536 cases), causing disrepute (2,231 cases), and personal revenge (1,850 cases).
• State-wise trends: Telangana recorded the highest number of cybercrime cases (27,230 cases) - nearly 50% rise from 2023. Karnataka followed with 21,003 cases.
• Metropolitan cities under stress:
  • Nearly 35,000 cybercrime cases were registered in metro cities in 2024.
  • Investigation burden remained severe, for example, over 1.2 lakh cases pending investigation, and around 75,000 cases pending trial.
• Key interpretation:
  • Cybercrimes as India’s emerging security challenge.
  • Growing digital vulnerability.
  • Need for cyber policing reforms.
  • Importance of digital literacy and cyber awareness.
  • Capacity constraints in investigation and judicial systems.

Rise in Economic Offences:

• Trends: Economic offences rose by 4.6% in 2024 from 2,04,973 (2023) to 2,14,379 (2024).
• Major components:
  • Forgery, Cheating and Fraud (FCF): Accounted for nearly 90% (1,92,382 cases) of economic offences.
  • Criminal breach of trust: 21,251 cases.
• Implications: The rise indicates -
  • Increasing financial frauds.
  • Expansion of online scams.
  • Weak consumer cyber protection.
  • Need for stronger fintech regulation and digital governance.

Crimes Against Women:

• Marginal decline: Cases declined marginally from 4.48 lakh (2023) to 4.41 lakh (2024).
• Major categories: Cruelty by husband or relatives, kidnapping, crimes against minors, and assault with intent to outrage modesty.
• Crime rate: Crime rate against women declined from 66.2 to 64.6 per lakh women population.
• Structural issues persist: Despite statistical decline, domestic violence remains pervasive, patriarchal social structures continue, and low conviction rates and underreporting remain concerns.

Crimes Against SCs and STs:

• Decline in registered cases:
  • Scheduled Castes (SCs): Cases declined by 3.6% from 57,789 to 55,698. UP, MP and Bihar are the States with highest cases.
  • Scheduled Tribes (STs): Cases declined sharply by 23.1% from 12,960 to 9,966. MP, Rajasthan and Maharashtra are States with highest cases.
• Critical observation: A decline in cases does not necessarily imply reduction in discrimination and improved social justice outcomes. It may also reflect underreporting, weak access to justice, and fear of social backlash.

Child Safety and Juvenile Concerns:

• Rising missing children cases: Missing children cases increased by 7.8% from 91,296 to 98,375 (Girls: 75,603; Boys: 22,768; Transgender children: 4).
• Children in conflict with law (CCL): Delhi recorded the highest cases (2,306 CCL cases), having the highest crime rate among metro cities.
• The trends reflect: Urban vulnerability, child trafficking concerns, juvenile delinquency, and need for stronger child protection systems.

Suicides and Social Distress:

• Alarming suicide numbers: According to the ADSI report, India recorded 1,70,746 suicides in 2024.
• Vulnerable groups - Agriculture sector: 10,546 suicides (farmers/cultivators: 4,633; agricultural labourers: 5,913) linked to agriculture sector.
• Other vulnerable categories:
  • Daily wage workers: Around 31% of total suicides
  • Unemployed persons: 14,778
  • Students: 14,488
  • Homemakers: 22,113
• Interpretation: The figures indicate economic insecurity, agrarian distress, unemployment pressures, mental health crisis, social isolation and financial instability.

Drug Overdose Deaths:

• Sharp increase: Drug overdose deaths rose by 50% from 650 (2023) to 978 (2024).
• States reporting highest deaths: Tamil Nadu (313), Punjab (106), MP (90), Rajasthan (69), Mizoram (65).
• Broader implications:
  • The trend reflects that drug overdose deaths are an emerging public health concern in India, due to expanding drug abuse networks, weak rehabilitation systems.
  • It demands coordinated public health and policing interventions.

Crimes Against the State:

• Increase in cases: Cases rose by 6.6% from 4,873 to 5,194.
• Major laws involved:
  • Prevention of Damage to Public Property Act - 84.6% of cases
  • Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) - 649 cases
• Key interpretation: The rise indicates continuing concerns regarding public order, internal security, extremism and anti-state activities.

Key Challenges Highlighted by NCRB Data:

• Institutional challenges: Massive pendency in cybercrime investigations, low conviction rates, forensic and cyber policing gaps, and judicial delays.
• Social challenges: Agrarian distress, gender violence, juvenile vulnerability, mental health crisis, and drug addiction.
• Governance challenges: Coordination gaps between states and agencies, weak cyber awareness, insufficient rehabilitation and counselling infrastructure.

Way Forward:

• Strengthening cyber security architecture: Expand cybercrime police stations, enhance digital forensic capacity, improve interstate coordination, and promote cyber awareness campaigns.
• Criminal justice reforms: Fast-track cybercrime and economic offence cases, reduce judicial pendency, and improve conviction rates through technology-enabled policing.
• Social protection measures: Strengthen mental health support systems, expand farmer welfare and livelihood security, enhance employment generation programmes.
• Child and women safety: Improve child tracking systems, strengthen women helplines and legal aid, expand community policing initiatives.
• Drug abuse prevention: Strengthen rehabilitation centres, improve narcotics intelligence sharing, promote awareness among youth.

Conclusion:

• The NCRB’s Crime in India 2024 report presents a mixed picture.
• While overall crime rates have declined, the rapid rise in cybercrime, economic fraud, suicides, and drug overdose deaths points toward deeper socio-economic and technological challenges confronting India.
• The data underscores the urgent need for a modernised criminal justice system, stronger cyber governance, mental health interventions, and inclusive socio-economic policies.
• As India moves deeper into the digital age, governance institutions must evolve to address emerging forms of crime while ensuring justice, social security, and public trust.

Why in the News?

• India and Vietnam elevated their bilateral relationship to an "Enhanced Comprehensive Strategic Partnership" during Vietnamese President To Lam's visit to New Delhi, setting a trade target of $25 billion by 2030.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India-Vietnam Relations (Background, Bilateral Trade, Defence Ties, Indian Diaspora, etc.)
• Key Outcomes of Bilateral Meet

India-Vietnam Bilateral Relations: Historical Background

• The two nations established diplomatic relations in 1972, though their ties trace back to the era of anti-colonial struggles. 
• Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was the first foreign leader to visit Vietnam in 1954, just one week after the liberation of Hanoi.
• During the Vietnam War, India consistently supported Vietnam’s sovereignty and territorial integrity.
• After reunification in 1975, India was among the first countries to recognise unified Vietnam.
• The relationship was formalised into a Strategic Partnership in 2007; notably, Vietnam was among the first countries with which India entered such an arrangement, and this was India's first Strategic Partnership within the ASEAN region.
• In 2016, the ties were further elevated to a Comprehensive Strategic Partnership, reflecting deeper convergence across political, economic, defence, and cultural domains.

Bilateral Trade and Economic Cooperation

• In 2025-2026, India-Viet Nam bilateral trade crossed USD 16 billion (more than 10% increase year-on-year), wherein India’s export to Viet Nam accounted to ~USD 6.11 billion, while Vietnam’s exports to India were  ~USD 10.35 billion. 
• Key areas of economic engagement include:
  • Pharmaceuticals: Indian generic medicines have a growing market in Vietnam.
  • Agriculture and Fisheries: Both sides are expanding market access for agricultural products, including Indian grapes and pomegranates, and Vietnamese durians and pomelos.
  • Manufacturing and Electronics: Vietnam is emerging as a hub for high-technology manufacturing, offering opportunities for Indian investments.
  • Renewable Energy and Electric Vehicles: Both nations are exploring cooperation in clean energy transitions.
  • Digital Economy: Collaboration in e-commerce platforms, digital payments, and integration of MSMEs into global value chains.
• Vietnam is a member of ASEAN and a party to the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), making it a strategic gateway for Indian businesses seeking access to Southeast Asian markets.

Defence and Security Ties

• Defence cooperation forms a key pillar of India-Vietnam relations. Both countries share concerns over maritime security in the Indo-Pacific region, particularly regarding freedom of navigation in the South China Sea.
• Key aspects of defence cooperation include:
  • Defence Lines of Credit: India has extended defence LoCs to Vietnam to enhance its defence capabilities, including the supply of defence equipment and patrol vessels.
  • Maritime Security: Both nations emphasise security and domain awareness, with India offering to host a Vietnamese liaison officer at the Information Fusion Centre-Indian Ocean Region (IFC-IOR) in Gurugram.
  • Defence Industrial Collaboration: Discussions on joint research, co-production of defence technologies, and participation in defence exhibitions.
  • Coast Guard Cooperation: Enhanced coordination for maritime safety and search-and-rescue operations.
• Vietnam's participation in the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI), announced during the recent visit, further strengthens this strategic alignment.

Indian Diaspora and Cultural Linkages

• The Indian community in Vietnam is relatively small, numbering around 8,000 people, primarily engaged in business, IT, and professional services.
• Both countries share deep civilisational links through Buddhism and the ancient Cham civilisation, which had significant Hindu influences.
• The My Son sanctuary in Vietnam, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, reflects this shared heritage.
• India's development partnership in Vietnam includes 66 Quick Impact Projects implemented across most Vietnamese provinces, focusing on grassroots development in areas like education, healthcare, and community infrastructure.

Key Outcomes of the Vietnamese President's Visit to India

• Vietnamese President To Lam, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Vietnam, visited India on May 6, 2026.
• His visit within a month of assuming the presidency underscored the priority both nations attach to bilateral relations.

Elevation to Enhanced Comprehensive Strategic Partnership

• The most significant outcome was the decision to elevate ties to an "Enhanced Comprehensive Strategic Partnership", the highest level of diplomatic engagement India extends to any country.
• Prime Minister Modi stated that cooperation would now reach "new heights across every sector," covering culture, connectivity, capacity-building, security, sustainability, and supply chain resilience.

Trade Target of $25 Billion by 2030

• Both leaders set an ambitious new bilateral trade target of $25 billion by 2030, up from the current $16 billion. Key enablers include:
  • Smoother export of Indian pharmaceuticals, agricultural, fisheries, and animal products to Vietnam.
  • Market access approvals for Indian grapes and pomegranates, and Vietnamese durians and pomelos.
  • Cooperation on supply chain resilience and diversification.

Defence and Maritime Cooperation

• Enhanced defence procurement and industrial collaboration.
• Joint research and co-production of defence technologies.
• Increased port calls by naval vessels and air force aircraft.
• Vietnam joining the Indo-Pacific Oceans Initiative (IPOI).

South China Sea and Rule of Law

• The joint statement emphasised maintaining peace, stability, and freedom of navigation in the South China Sea in accordance with UNCLOS, without resorting to threat or use of force.
• Both sides called for non-militarisation, self-restraint, and early conclusion of a Code of Conduct in the South China Sea.

Agreements Signed

• A total of 13 documents were signed, including:
  • MoU between RBI and State Bank of Vietnam on digital payments and QR-based cross-border transactions.
  • MoU on radioactive and rare earth minerals.
  • Agreements on urban management, culture, and manuscripts.
  • Cooperation in digital public infrastructure, AI, 6G, space, and critical minerals.

Vietnam's Role in the Act East Policy

• Prime Minister Modi described Vietnam as a "major pillar of India's Act East Policy and Vision MAHASAGAR", emphasising shared outlooks on the Indo-Pacific, rule of law, peace, and prosperity.
• India reiterated its commitment to expanding ties with ASEAN through its relationship with Vietnam.

Context

• India has significantly expanded its medical education system by establishing 43 new medical colleges and increasing MBBS and postgraduate seats.
• These initiatives aim to strengthen the country’s public healthcare system and address the shortage of doctors, however, the crisis in healthcare is not merely due to a lack of medical graduates.
• The deeper problem lies in the unequal distribution of doctors, poor infrastructure in rural areas, and weak policy implementation.

Expansion of Medical Education and Its Limitations

• Dominance of the Private Sector
  • A major concern is that most newly established colleges belong to the private sector.
  • These institutions often charge high capitation fees and have no obligation to provide doctors for government service.
  • As a result, many graduates prefer urban private practice rather than serving in aspirational districts, tribal regions, or remote healthcare centres.
• Lack of Public Accountability
  • Although thousands of postgraduate seats have been added, there is no clear mechanism to ensure that specialists fill vacancies in public hospitals.
  • Expanding infrastructure without linking it to healthcare delivery creates a gap between policy announcements and actual improvement in services.

Crisis in Community Health Centres (CHCs)

• Severe Specialist Shortage
  • The condition of CHCs reflects the seriousness of India’s healthcare crisis.
  • CHCs are expected to function as referral units with five specialists: physician, surgeon, obstetrician, paediatrician, and anaesthetist.
  • However, the vacancy rate in rural CHCs is nearly 80%, with only 4,413 specialists available against a requirement of 21,964.
• Impact on Rural Populations
  • Due to the shortage of specialists, patients from villages and tribal areas are forced to travel long distances to district hospitals or medical colleges for treatment.
  • This increases financial burden, delays medical care, and weakens trust in government healthcare institutions.

Poor Working Conditions in Rural Areas

• Inadequate Infrastructure
  • Doctors are often unwilling to work in remote regions because healthcare centres lack proper equipment, operation theatres, labour rooms, intensive care units, and emergency facilities.
  • Many hospitals also suffer from shortages of medicines, diagnostics, and trained staff.
• Social and Professional Challenges
  • The absence of staff quarters, quality schools for children, and professional peer support discourages specialists from accepting rural postings.
  • Without adequate living and working conditions, simply producing more doctors cannot solve the healthcare crisis.

Flawed Budgetary Priorities

• Excessive Focus on Capital Expenditure
  • Healthcare spending is heavily focused on capital expenditure and construction of buildings rather than operational efficiency.
  • Large investments are made in infrastructure, but insufficient funds are allocated for drugs, diagnostics, ambulance services, emergency care, and staff salaries.
• Underutilised Healthcare Facilities
  • As a result, many healthcare centres exist physically but remain poorly functional.
  • Infrastructure without adequate manpower and operational support fails to deliver quality healthcare services.

Necessary Reforms and Solutions

• Linking Postgraduate Seats with Public Service
  • Government-sponsored postgraduate training should be directly linked to vacancies in CHCs and district hospitals.
  • Doctors receiving subsidised education must commit to serving in designated government facilities after completing their training.
• Incentives for Rural Service
  • Special incentives such as higher salaries, housing facilities, educational support for children, and career benefits can encourage specialists to work in underserved regions.
  • Areas may also be classified as normal, difficult, and most difficult to provide targeted benefits.
• The All or None Principle
  • The all or none principle should be adopted to ensure that all five specialists are posted together in selected CHCs instead of being scattered across multiple centres.
  • Team-based deployment would improve coordination, reduce workload stress, and strengthen healthcare delivery.

Conclusion

• India’s healthcare crisis cannot be resolved merely by increasing the number of medical colleges and seats.
• Sustainable improvement requires better healthcare planning, equitable distribution of specialists, improved rural infrastructure, and strong incentives for public service.
• A healthcare system focused on accessibility, efficiency, and accountability is essential to ensure quality medical care for India’s poor and marginalized communities.

Context

• Recent there have been significant economic and labour reforms in India, including the Labour Codes and the replacement of MGNREGA with the Viksit Bharat-Guarantee for Rozgar and Ajeevika Mission (Gramin) Bill, 2025.
• This has intensified concerns regarding the welfare of informal workers and rural populations.
• Simultaneously, official narratives increasingly claim that inequality is no longer a major issue in India.
• However, patterns of consumption expenditure, class divisions, and rural-urban disparities reveal that inequality remains deeply rooted in the Indian economy.

Understanding Inequality in India

• It involves differences in income, wealth, and consumption expenditure, along with disparities based on class, caste, gender, and region.
• Using data from the Household Consumer Expenditure Survey (HCES 2023–24) conducted by the NSSO, the estimated Gini Index for India stands at 0.29, higher than the widely cited World Bank estimate of 0.25.
• This difference highlights methodological issues in measuring inequality and suggests that existing estimates may underestimate the actual extent of economic disparity.
• Since the richest sections are often underrepresented in surveys, inequality appears lower than it truly is.

Urban-Rural Divide and Consumption Inequality

• Urban India as More Affluent but More Unequal
  • India’s economic growth and consumption boom have been driven largely by non-food expenditure, including spending on healthcare, education, housing, and consumer goods.
  • These opportunities are concentrated in urban areas, making urban India more affluent but also more unequal.
  • Urban non-food Monthly Per Capita Expenditure (MPCE) is around 1.5 times higher than the national average, while rural expenditure remains below it.
  • Inequality in non-food expenditure is significantly higher than in food expenditure, reflecting unequal access to better living standards and opportunities.
  • Persistent agricultural distress and limited rural development have widened the gap between rural and urban India.
• Growing Gap Between Rich and Poor
  • Economic benefits are heavily concentrated among higher-income groups. In urban India, the top 10% account for 27% of total non-food expenditure.
  • The richest urban decile spends six times more than the poorest urban decile, while the richest urban group spends nine times more than the poorest rural group.
  • Such figures demonstrate increasing concentration of wealth and consumption among affluent urban populations, while lower-income groups struggle with rising living costs and limited opportunities.

Structural Nature of Inequality

• Inequality in India is increasingly structural rather than individual. Between-decile inequality contributes far more to overall inequality than differences within the same group.
• Nearly 90% of urban non-food expenditure inequality arises from disparities between income groups.
• This indicates a widening economic distance between the rich and the poor, especially in access to education, healthcare, technology, and social mobility.
• The unequal distribution of opportunities reinforces long-term social and economic divisions.

Limitations of Official Data

• Official surveys fail to fully capture the super-rich, leading to underestimation of actual inequality levels.
• At the same time, weaknesses in welfare targeting are visible in cases where affluent households benefit from schemes such as the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojana (PMGKY) or possess BPL ration cards.
• Such inconsistencies reveal flaws in the identification of beneficiaries and weaken the effectiveness of welfare policies aimed at supporting vulnerable groups.

Debt-Led Consumption and Economic Insecurity

• A large section of India’s population depends on debt-led consumption to maintain living standards.
• Increased spending does not necessarily reflect genuine prosperity because many households rely on borrowing rather than stable income growth.
• This creates economic vulnerability and financial insecurity, especially during inflation, unemployment, or economic slowdown.
• Rising consumption, therefore, should not be mistaken for declining inequality.

Critical Evaluation of Policy Assumptions

• Policies based on the assumption of lower inequality may weaken labour protections and reduce welfare support for vulnerable populations.
• Reforms affecting employment guarantees and labour rights could disproportionately harm rural workers and the informal sector.
• Addressing inequality requires more accurate measurement, stronger welfare systems, inclusive development policies, and structural reforms that reduce disparities in access to income, opportunities, and resources.

Conclusion

• Inequality in India remains widespread, multidimensional, and structurally embedded and while urban India has become more prosperous, it has also become more unequal.
• Economic growth has primarily benefited affluent urban groups, while rural labourers, informal workers, and marginalised communities continue to face insecurity and exclusion.
• Persistent class divisions, unequal consumption patterns, flawed welfare targeting, and debt-driven survival strategies reveal the limitations of current development policies.
• Sustainable and inclusive growth requires policies that prioritize social justice, equitable distribution of resources, and long-term welfare protections rather than relying solely on aggregate economic growth indicators.