What is the Sagaing Fault?

• The Sagaing Fault is a major active tectonic boundary running north to south through Myanmar, separating the Indian and Eurasian Plates.
• It is one of the longest and most active strike-slip faults globally, extending 1,500 km from the Andaman Sea in the south to the Eastern Himalayas in the north.
• The Indian Plate is moving northward, causing stress buildup along the fault, leading to large earthquakes over time.

Types of Faults and their role in Earthquakes

• Faults are fractures in the Earth’s crust where rocks move due to tectonic stress. When stress accumulates beyond a critical limit, energy is released as seismic waves, causing earthquakes.
• The main types of faults include:
  • Normal Fault: The hanging wall moves downward relative to the footwall, common at divergent boundaries. (Example: East African Rift Valley, Basin and Range Province in the U.S.)
  • Reverse Fault: The hanging wall moves upward due to compression forces, occurring at convergent boundaries. (Example: Himalayas, Rocky Mountains)
  • Strike-Slip Fault: The horizontal movement of fault blocks occurs with minimal vertical displacement, typical of transform boundaries. (Example: Anatolian Fault in Turkey, Sagaing Fault in Myanmar)
  • Transform Fault: A specific type of strike-slip fault where tectonic plates slide past each other. (Example: San Andreas Fault in California)

What is Fluoride?

• Fluoride is a naturally occurring element found in groundwater.
• The national drinking water limit for fluoride is 1.50 mg/L.
• Excessive fluoride consumption can cause skeletal fluorosis, accelerate dental decay, and pose serious health risks, particularly for children.

States with High Fluoride Contamination

• Rajasthan has the highest fluoride contamination in India.
• Other affected states include Telangana, western Andhra Pradesh, and eastern Karnataka.
• Fluoride levels spike during the dry, summer pre-monsoon months, with arid regions in western India showing higher contamination than humid areas.
• Other Groundwater Contaminants in India: Apart from fluoride, India's groundwater is also contaminated with several other harmful elements:
  • Arsenic Contamination: Found in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, covering 90% of arsenic contamination cases in India.
  • Uranium Contamination: Found in 12 states, including Punjab.
  • Iron Contamination: Severe in states like Rajasthan, Jharkhand, and Assam.
  • Other contaminants, such as antimony, cadmium, copper, and barium, also pose risks, leading to toxicity, hypertension, and liver and kidney damage.

Legislative and Policy Measures to Address Contamination

• Several laws and initiatives have been introduced to control water contamination:
  • Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
  • Environment Protection Act, 1986
  • The Water Cess Act, 1977
• Additionally, various government schemes focus on groundwater recharge and conservation:
  • Prime Minister Krishi Sinchayee Yojana – Watershed Development
  • Atal Bhujal Yojana (focused on sustainable groundwater management)

Role of the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA)

• CGWA was established under Section 3(3) of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 to regulate groundwater resources.
• Major Functions of CGWA:
  • Regulating and managing groundwater resources to prevent over-extraction.
  • Issuing necessary regulatory directions for conservation and usage.
  • Exercising powers under Section 4 of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 to appoint officers for enforcement.

About ChaSTE

• It successfully penetrated lunar soil and deployed a thermal probe, achieving what two previous missions—ESA’s Philae (2014) and NASA’s InSight HP3 (2018)—could not.
• This experiment provided crucial data on lunar surface temperatures, strengthening evidence of water ice deposits.

How ChaSTE Works

• ChaSTE’s thermal probe was integrated into the Vikram lander of Chandrayaan-3, which landed on August 23, 2023.
• The probe is equipped with 10 temperature sensors placed 1 cm apart along its length, near the nose-tip.
• It uses a rotation-based deployment mechanism instead of a hammering device, which played a crucial role in its success.
• The motor rotates, pushing the probe downward until the tip touches the Moon’s surface.
• As the probe continues to penetrate deeper, the increasing resistance from the lunar soil helps determine how far it has descended.
• ChaSTE successfully reached a depth of 10 cm in the Moon’s regolith, where it continuously monitored temperature variations until September 2, 2023.
• The final temperature readings from the deep lunar soil confirmed thermal properties essential for lunar exploration.

Comparisons with Previous Missions

• ESA’s Philae lander (2014) on Comet 67P: It carried the MUPUS instrument to measure surface and subsurface temperatures. Failed due to an awkward landing, preventing the probe from being deployed properly.
• NASA’s InSight lander (2018) on Mars: Included the Heat Flow and Physical Properties Package (HP3), featuring a self-hammering nail nicknamed "The Mole" designed to penetrate 5 meters underground.
  • Encountered low friction in Martian sand, preventing it from burrowing deep enough to collect meaningful temperature data.
  • The temperature sensors were attached to a tether, not on the mole itself, which made data collection impossible.

About Katchatheevu Islands

• Location: Katchatheevu is a 285-acre uninhabited island situated in the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka.
  • It is 33 km northeast of Rameswaram (India) and 62 km southwest of Jaffna (Sri Lanka).
• Strategic Importance:
  • Acts as a maritime boundary marker between India and Sri Lanka.
  • Fisheries-rich zone, crucial for Tamil Nadu’s fishing economy.
  • Anthony’s Church is a place of religious significance for fishermen of both nations.

Historical ownership of Katchatheevu

• It was formed due to a volcanic eruption in the 14th century.
• Initially ruled by the Jaffna kingdom (Sri Lanka), later controlled by the Ramnad Zamindari under the Nayak dynasty (Madurai).
• British India and Sri Lanka both claimed the island until the 1974 agreement settled sovereignty in Sri Lanka’s favor.

International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL)

• The IMBL between India and Sri Lanka was delineated in 1974 under the Indo-Sri Lankan maritime boundary agreement.
• Established based on UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea).
• Maritime boundaries are often defined by the equidistance principle, ensuring a medial line equidistant from both nations' coasts.
• The IMBL determines Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs), Territorial waters and other maritime zones.
• The 1974 agreement adjusted the equidistant line, leading to Katchatheevu falling under Sri Lanka's sovereignty.

Other Maritime Disputes

• With Pakistan: Sir Creek Dispute: A boundary dispute over the demarcation of a 96 km estuary in Gujarat.
• With Bangladesh: New Moore Island (South Talpatti dispute): Permanently settled in Bangladesh’s favour after a 2014 ruling by the Permanent Court of Arbitration.

About Euphaea wayanadensis

• Classification: Belongs to the family Euphaeidae.
• First sightings: Initially observed in 2013 at the Kalindi River, Thirunelli, in Wayanad district, Kerala.
• Further sightings occurred from 2013 to 2019 in Wayanad, followed by more observations from 2019 to 2023 in Aralam (Kannur, Kerala) and the western slopes of Coorg (Karnataka).
• Identification challenges:
  • Initially misidentified as Euphaea pseudodispar, a species from Maharashtra.
  • Later confirmed as a distinct species through detailed morphological study and genetic analysis.

Key Morphological Features

• Distinctive hind wing: Features a longer black patch compared to related species.
• Striking colouration: Males display broader and uninterrupted humeral and antehumeral stripes.
• Unique genital structure: The male genital vesicle exhibits structural traits that differ from closely related species.

Habitat and Distribution

• Prefers fast-flowing streams with rocky beds and aquatic vegetation.
• Thrives in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest regions along stream banks.
• Active throughout the year, except in the dry seasons of March and April.
• Shows highly restricted distribution, making it vulnerable to habitat loss and climate change.

About North Sentinel Island:

• It is one of the Andaman Islands - an archipelago in the Bay of Bengal - and part of the Indian Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• It is located west of the central cluster of the Andaman Islands.
• The island measures approximately 8 kilometers (5.0 mi) in length and 7 kilometers (4.3 mi) in width, covering an area of about 60 square kilometers (23 sq mi).
• The island is densely covered in tropical rainforest.
• It’s also circled by a shallow reef.
• It harbours one of the world's last secluded tribes — the Sentinelese.
  • They are believed to be direct descendants of the first humans who migrated out of Africa around 60,000 years ago.
  • The tribe has lived in voluntary isolation for thousands of years, fiercely resisting contact with the outside world.
• The island falls under the Andaman and Nicobar Protection of Aboriginal Tribes Act, 1956, making it illegal to approach closer than 5 nautical miles.
• According to a 2011 census effort, and based on anthropologists' estimates, there are probably somewhere between 80 and 150 people on North Sentinel Island, although it could be as many as 500 or as few as 15.

About INS Tarkash:

• It is a state-of-the-art stealth frigate of the Indian Navy. It is part of the navy’s Western Fleet.
• It belongs to the Talwar class of guided missile frigates. These are modified Krivak III-class frigates built by Russia.
• INS Tarkash was built at the Yantar shipyard in Kaliningrad,
• It was commissioned and inducted into the Indian Navy on November 9, 2012, at Kaliningrad, Russia.
• Features:
  • It uses stealth technologies and a special hull design to ensure a reduced radar cross-section.
  • It has a length of 124.8 m, a beam of 15.2 m, and a draught of 4.2 m (13 ft 9 in).
  • Top Speed: 32 knots (59 km/h; 37 mph).
  • It has been equipped with a weapon sensor that enables it to address threats in all dimensions.
  • It can board one Ka-28 Helix-A antisubmarine helicopter or one Ka-31 Helix-B airborne early warning helicopter.
  • Weapons: Supersonic BrahMos missile system, advanced surface-to-air-missile system, upgraded 100mm medium range gun, optically controlled 30mm close-in weapon system, torpedoes, rocket launchers, and advanced electronic warfare/communication suite.

About Binturong:

• It is a catlike omnivore of the civet family.
• It is the largest civet in India, colloquially known as the bearcat.
• Scientific Name: Arctictis binturong
• Distribution:
  • It is found in dense forests of Southeast Asia.
  • Its range extends from Nepal, India, and Bhutan southward to the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Java and eastward to Borneo.
• Features:
  • The head and body measure about 60–95 cm and the tail an additional 55–90 cm; weight ranges from about 9 to 14 kg (20 to 31 pounds).
  • It has long, shaggy hair, tufted ears, and a long, bushy, prehensile tail.
  • The colour generally is black with a sprinkling of whitish hairs.
  • It is principally nocturnal and crepuscular (that is, active during twilight).
  • It is found most often among the trees, using its prehensile tail as an aid in climbing.
  • It has scent glands, which are located just under its tail. These glands are used to mark trees and foliage to outline an individual’s territory.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN: Vulnerable
  • Wildlife Protection Act of 1972: Schedule I
  • CITES: Appendix III

Key Facts about Balpakram National Park:

• It is situated in the West Garo Hills district of the north-eastern state of Meghalaya, about 134 km away from the capital of Shillong.
• It is known as the "Land of Perpetual Winds" due to strong winds that blow across the plateau.
• It is also close to the international boundary of Bangladesh.
• It has been declared a National Park since 1987.
• Lying at an altitude of nearly 3,000 ft. above sea level, it covers an area of more than 200 sq. km.
• There is a deep gorge in Balpakram that is often compared to the Grand Canyon in the United States of America.
• Flora: Among the plants, very rare species like Pitcher Plants (Nepenthes khasiana), Orchids and Drosera flourish abundantly in the park.
• Fauna:
  • Elephants and Tigers are the flagship of the park.
  • Hillock Gibbons, the only ape species found in India can be seen here.
  • Other animals found in the park are Deer, Great Indian Hornbill, Pheasant, Wildcats, Wildcows, Wild buffalo, Leopards etc.

About Great Red Spot:

• It is an anticyclone, a long-lasting area of high pressure on Jupiter creating a persistent storm.
• Located in Jupiter's Southern Hemisphere, it appears as a giant red spot on Jupiter's surface. The source of the red coloration is unknown.
• It extends well above Jupiter’s main cloud layers.
• It is the largest known storm in the Solar System. With a diameter of 15,400 miles, it is almost twice the size of the entire Earth and one-sixth the diameter of Jupiter itself.
• Winds inside this Jovian storm reach speeds of about 270 mph.
• It has existed for the last 150 years, possibly even longer.
  • The long lifetime of the Red Spot may be due to the fact that Jupiter is mainly a gaseous planet.
  • It possibly has liquid layers but lacks a solid surface, which would dissipate the storm's energy, much as happens when a hurricane makes landfall on the Earth.
  • However, the Red Spot does change its shape, size, and color, sometimes dramatically.

About Aqueduct:

• An aqueduct is a watercourse constructed to carry water from a source to a distribution point far away.
• The term aqueduct comes from words meaning "to lead water" in Latin.
• In modern engineering, the term aqueduct is used for any system of pipes, ditches, canals, tunnels, and other structures used for this purpose.
• The term aqueduct also often refers specifically to a bridge carrying an artificial watercourse.
• The earliest aqueducts were also used to transport water for irrigation.
• Aqueducts were used in ancient India, Persia, Assyria, and Egypt as early as 700 BCE.
• The Romans, however, are regarded as the most famous ancient aqueduct builders.
  • Between 312 BCE and 230 CE, the most complex and efficient ancient system of aqueducts was built to supply the city of Rome with water.
• Aqueducts have been important particularly for the development of areas with limited direct access to fresh water sources.