About Karnala Fort:

• Karnala Fort, also called Funnel Hill, is a historic hill fort located in Raigad District in Maharashtra.
• Standing inside the Karnala Bird Sanctuary, it offers stunning views of the Sahyadris.
• The fort overlooks the historic Bor Pass, a key trade route connecting Konkan to Maharashtra’s interior.
• History:
  • The fort was likely constructed before 1400, under the Devagiri Yadavs (1248–1318) and the Tughlaq rulers (1318–1347); Karnala was the capital of the north Konkan districts of their respective empires.
  • Its strategic location made it a coveted possession for various rulers over the centuries.
  • Controlled at various times by the Yadavas, Tughlaqs, Gujarat Sultanate, Nizam Shahis of Ahmednagar, Portuguese, Marathas, Mughals, Peshwas, and finally the British East India Company.
  • The fort's significance grew during its role in Maratha history, when it became a crucial outpost for Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj in his quest to establish a Maratha empire.
• Features:
  • It actually consists of two forts, one at a higher level and the other lower.
  • At the centre of the higher level is a 125-feet-high basalt pillar. It is also called Pandu's tower.
  • This structure was used as a watchtower when the fort was occupied; however now it is in a ruined condition.
  • There is a temple dedicated to the goddess Bhavani located at the bottom of the fort.

About Halma Tradition:

• Halma is an old collective tradition practiced by the Bhil tribal community of Madhya Pradesh.
• Its direct meaning is: to work together without wages or contract, sustained by mutual obligation and belonging.
• At its heart, Halma represents a profound tradition of voluntary collective labour.
• The roots of this tradition reach back to an era when these communities had neither large resources, nor government support, nor a marketplace. What they had was one another.
• When an individual or family faces a significant task, be it constructing a home, repairing agricultural embankments, restoring a water body, or organizing a major communal event, they invoke Halma.
• In response, scores, sometimes hundreds, of community members assemble, bringing their own tools, food, and labour, and work collectively until the task is accomplished.
• There is no formal leader and no grand announcement. There is only work, done side by side.
• No monetary compensation is expected. Participation arises not from obligation enforced by external authority but from ethical commitment, ancestral values, and the assurance that when needed, the favor will be returned.
• In recent years, Halma has been revitalized to address common challenges such as:
  • Restoration of traditional water bodies
  • Afforestation of barren hills
  • Construction of contour trenches for rainwater conservation
  • Revitalization of biodiversity and soil health

About Yellow-Throated Marten:

• The yellow-throated marten, also known as the kharza, is a marten species found in forested regions throughout Southern and Eastern Asia.
  • A marten is a slender-bodied mammal belonging to the weasel family (Mustelidae), which also includes otters, badgers, ferrets, and wolverines.
• Scientific Name: Martes flavigula
• Habitat and Distribution:
  • Their range extends throughout the Himalayas, as far south as Indonesia, and as far north as the Korean Peninsula and the Chinese-Russian border.
  • They occupy a variety of habitats. They live in coniferous and broad-leaved forests, montane forests, tropical dry and moist forests.
  • They are also found in shrublands, lowland swamps, and treeless mountains.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Least Concern

About Bolide:

• A bolide is a type of large, exceptionally bright meteor that often explodes in the upper atmosphere, producing a bright flash of light and occasionally fragmented meteorites reaching the ground.
• Bolides are distinguished from regular meteors by their greater brightness and more dramatic visual effects.
• Bolides can also produce loud booms.
• Bolides are more common than many people realize, with several occurring each year, though most go unnoticed or happen over remote areas.
• Studying bolides can provide valuable information about the composition and structure of meteoroids, as well as insights into the processes that occur during atmospheric entry.

What is a Meteor?

• A space rock that has not entered the Earth’s atmosphere is usually referred to as a meteoroid or asteroid.
• Once in the Earth’s atmosphere, the rock traveling at very high velocities encounters friction from the atmosphere, resulting in a fireball that is then referred to as a meteor.
• Meteors that reach the ground are then called meteorites.

About Eurozone:

• The eurozone, officially known as the euro area, is a geographic and economic region that consists of countries in the European Union (EU) that have adopted the euro (€) as their national currency.
• Members:
  • As of January 2026, the eurozone consists of 21 countries in the
  • These are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain.
  • Latest member: Bulgaria (2026)
• Not all EU nations participate in the eurozone; some opt to use their own currency and maintain their financial independence.
  • EU members not using the euro: Czech Republic, Denmark, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Sweden
• The European Central Bank (ECB) exercises the sole power to set the monetary policy for the Eurozone countries.
  • The ECB exercises the sole authority to decide the printing and minting of euro notes and coins. It also decides the interest rate for the Eurozone.
  • The ECBs is headed by a president and a board, comprising the heads of the central banks of the participating nations.
• The Eurozone has mechanisms for support during periods of economic instability.
  • The European Stability Mechanism (ESM) was created to provide financial assistance through rescue loans under specific conditions.
• How do countries join the Eurozone?
  • In order to join the euro area, EU member states are required to fulfil so-called ‘convergence criteria’ which consists of price stability, sound public finances, the durability of convergence, and exchange rate stability.
  • These binding economic and legal conditions were agreed upon in the Maastricht Treaty in 1992 and are also known as ‘Maastricht criteria’.
  • All EU member states, except Denmark, are required to adopt the euro and join the euro area once they are ready to fulfill them.
  • The Treaty does not specify a particular timetable for joining the euro area but leaves it to member states to develop their own strategies for meeting the condition for euro adoption.
  • The European Commission and the ECB jointly decide whether the conditions are met for euro area candidate countries to adopt the euro.

About Isobutanol:

• It is also called isobutyl alcohol, is an alcohol with the chemical formula C₄H₁₀O and one of the four isomers of butanol.
• Properties of Isobutanol:
  • It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor. 
  • It is only moderately soluble in water.
  • It is very flammable and has a flash point that is only slightly above normal room temperatures. 
  • Its vapors are heavier than air and can spread unnoticed along the ground. 
  • It can be made from ethanol using fermentation processes.
• Applications of Isobutanol:
  • It is used as a solvent in the flavor, fragrance, pharmaceutical, and pesticide industries and as a chemical manufacturing ingredient for products such as lacquer, paint strippers, paint primer, and craft paints.
  • It is an approved food additive and is also naturally occurring in some foods and many alcoholic beverages. 
  • Isobutanol may also be used as a biofuel because, like ethanol, it can be manufactured from plants.
  • It possesses some favorable properties that make it an attractive fuel for internal combustion engines. 
  • Isobutanol is less corrosive than ethanol and is much less hygroscopic, which enables it to be transported using the existing fuel infrastructure.

About Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve:

• Location: It is located in the southern part of the Western Ghats spanning the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
• It was established as Biosphere Reserve in 2001 and added into the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves list in 2016.
• It includes protected areas namely
  • Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary
  • Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary
  • Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary
  • Kalakkad MundanthuraiT iger Reserve
• Vegetation: It comprises of tropical wet evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, montane rain forests and Shola.
• Fauna: It is home to many species of higher plants including about many that are endemic.
• Fauna: It includes the Asian elephant, tiger and Nilgiri Tahr and birds like Great Indian hornbill.
• Tribal People: It is home to the Kanikaran—one of the oldest surviving tribes in the world.

About Prime Minister Research Chair Scheme:

• It is a flagship national initiative aims to attract accomplished Indian origin researchers and professionals from leading global institutions and industries with outstanding achievements in research, innovation, and technology.
• It seeks to connect global Indian talent with premier government higher education institutions, national laboratories and research centres across the country.
• Features of Prime Minister Research Chair Scheme:
  • It will focus on 13 priority sectors namely:
    • Artificial intelligence, Quantum computing, Semiconductors, Energy and climate change, cybersecurity, Healthcare and medical technology, Biotechnology, Advanced materials, space and defence, Next-generation communications, Manufacturing, Agriculture and food technologies, Blue economy, and atomic energy.
  • It is anchored on three core pillars: Lead Institutions, Host Institutions, and PMRC Fellows to ensure research projects are aligned with national priorities and deliver measurable outcomes.
  • Selection Process: Fellows will be selected through a rigorous process overseen by an Empowered Committee chaired by the Principal Scientific Advisor to the Government of India.
    • PMRC Fellows will receive fellowship and research grant support, access to laboratories and research infrastructure and opportunities to work with leading government institutions in India.
  • It offers three categories of engagement namely Young Research Fellows for early career researchers, Senior Research Fellows for experienced researchers, and Research Chairs for globally accomplished research leaders.
  • Eligible Fellows: Eligible Fellows include accomplished Indian origin researchers, scientists, and professionals, including Indian Nationals working abroad, OCI cardholders, and Persons of Indian Origin.
  • Lead Institutions:
    • Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi)
    • Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay)
    • Indian Institute of Technology Madras (IIT Madras)
    • Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT Kanpur)
    • Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad (IIT Hyderabad)
    • Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines) Dhanbad [IIT (ISM) Dhanbad]
    • Indian Institute of Science Bengaluru (IISc Bengaluru)
  • Host Institutions:
    • Government Higher Educational Institutions ranked among the Top 100 in NIRF Overall or Engineering categories, or Top 50 in the NIRF Research category,
    • National laboratories and research institutions under agencies such as Department of Science and Technology (DST), Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), and Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), among others.

About Mission Senehjori:

• It is a comprehensive cluster-based initiative aimed at transforming Assam's unique Muga silk sector into a globally competitive, high-value luxury textile ecosystem.
• Objective: It seeks to strengthen the entire Muga silk value chain from host-plant cultivation and silkworm seed production to reeling, weaving, branding, export promotion, digital traceability and tourism.
• It is anchored by the MDoNER in convergence with the Government of Assam, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles and other Central Ministries/ organizations.
• Key Features of Mission Senehjori:
  • Cluster Based Approach: It adopts a cluster-based approach covering major Muga silk producing districts of Assam.
  • Infrastructure& Institutional Support: It envisages strengthening host plant ecology, establishing modern reeling infrastructure, promoting Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs), creating Common Facility Centres (CFCs).
  • Branding: It enforces GI authentication and building global market access under the unified brand identity "Senehjori".
  • Convergence Model: It has been conceptualised on the principle of "whole-of-government" approach, with convergence across Central Ministries, the Government of Assam, technical institutions and private-sector partners.

About RudraM-II Missile:

• It is an indigenously-developed solid-propelled air-launched missile system.
• It is meant for Air-to-Surface role to neutralise many types of enemy assets.
• It has been indigenously developed by Research Centre Imarat, Hyderabad as the nodal DRDO laboratory in collaboration with other sister labs 
• Key Features of RudraM-II Missile:
  • Speed: It can reach a peak speed of Mach 5.5.
  • Range: It is capable of striking targets at a distance of approximately 300 km.
  • Payload: It can carry a warhead weighing up to 200 kg.
  • It can be deployed from aircraft like Sukhois flying at altitudes ranging from 3 to 15 km.
  • It acts as a key force multiplier and intends to eventually replace the older Russian-origin Kh-31 anti-radiation missiles.
• It uses a hybrid navigation system combining an inertial navigation system, GPS and a sophisticated passive homing head that detects radio frequency emissions across a wide frequency band.

What is an Anti-radiation Missile?

• These are designed to detect, track and neutralise the adversary’s radar, communication assets and other radio frequency sources, which are generally part of their air defence systems.
• Such a missile’s navigation mechanism comprises
  • Inertial navigation system: A computerised mechanism that uses changes in the object’s own position — coupled with GPS, which is satellite-based.
  • Passive homing head: A system that can detect, classify and engage targets (radio frequency sources in this case) over a wide band of frequencies as programmed.