Why in the News?

• The Indian rupee has breached the 96-per-dollar mark, hitting a record low amid the West Asia crisis, with policymakers concerned about the possibility of it crossing the psychological barrier of 100.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Currency Depreciation (Concept, BoP, Historical Context, Crisis, Economic Implications, Policy Response, Way Forward)

Understanding Currency Depreciation

• Currency depreciation refers to the decline in the value of a country's currency relative to another currency, typically the US dollar in India's case.
• It occurs due to market forces such as demand and supply of foreign exchange, capital flows, trade balances, and interest rate differentials.
• A depreciating currency makes imports costlier and exports cheaper, affecting inflation, trade balance, and overall economic stability.
• For a heavily import-dependent country like India, especially for crude oil and gold, a weakening rupee has significant macroeconomic implications.

Understanding Balance of Payments

• The Balance of Payments (BoP) is a comprehensive record of all economic transactions between residents of a country and the rest of the world over a specific period. It comprises two main accounts:

• Current Account: Records trade in goods and services, primary income, and secondary income (remittances).
• Capital and Financial Account: Records foreign investments, loans, and other capital flows.

• A BoP surplus occurs when foreign fund inflows exceed the trade deficit, strengthening the rupee. A BoP deficit weakens the currency.

Historical Context: The Phase of Artificial Stabilisation

• The current rupee crisis must be understood in the context of the Reserve Bank of India's (RBI) intervention patterns over the past three years.
• Rupee Movement Timeline

• September 2022: Rupee breached the 81-per-dollar mark for the first time.
• 2023-2024: Rupee moved in a narrow range of 81-83 per dollar for nearly two years.
• October 2024: Broke past 84 per dollar.
• December 2024: Crossed 85 per dollar.
• Since January 2025: Rupee has fallen by 11%.
• May 2026: Breached 96 per dollar, hitting a record low.

• The Stabilisation Years
  • According to policymakers, the rupee was artificially held back between 2023 and 2024 through significant RBI interventions in the foreign exchange market. Key data points include:
    • 2022-23: BoP deficit of $9 billion; rupee weakened by 7.6%; RBI sold a record $213 billion; forex reserves declined by $29 billion.
    • 2023-24: BoP surplus of $64 billion; RBI bought $41 billion net; forex reserves increased by $68 billion; rupee declined only by 1.4%.
    • 2024-25: BoP deficit of $5 billion; rupee fell by 2.5%; RBI's gross dollar sales jumped to a record $399 billion.
  • The RBI's stated policy is that it does not target any specific exchange rate level and only intervenes to prevent excessive volatility. However, the data suggests significant interventions were made to maintain rupee stability.

Current Crisis: West Asia Conflict and Capital Outflows

• The ongoing West Asia crisis has put significant pressure on India's capital account, leading to substantial foreign capital outflows.
• Since the war began in late February 2026, the rupee has fallen by 5.2% against the dollar.
• Key Factors Driving Depreciation

• Rising Crude Oil Prices: Higher import bills widen the current account deficit.
• Foreign Institutional Investor (FII) Outflows: Sustained capital outflows of ₹1.97 lakh crore in the January-May period.
• Global Uncertainty: Geopolitical tensions affecting investor sentiment.
• Pent-up Depreciation: Markets pricing in depreciation that may have occurred during the earlier phase of artificial stability.

• Why Past Stabilisation Matters Now?
  • Policymakers are increasingly recognising that the prolonged stability of the rupee at 82-83 per dollar during 2023 and 2024 may have created pent-up depreciation pressure. According to internal deliberations:

• The forex market is now pricing in the depreciation that may have occurred earlier.
• The current fall appears steeper because of the earlier artificial stability.
• Effects of long, artificial stabilisation are being felt now.
• The ability of interventions to defend any particular level is increasingly seen as limited.

Economic Implications of Rupee Depreciation

• Impact on Inflation
  • A weaker rupee increases the cost of imports, particularly crude oil, leading to higher fuel prices and broader inflationary pressures.
  • According to State Bank of India's Group Chief Economic Advisor, the rupee has reached a "critical depreciation threshold" beyond which further weakness could erode the benefits of recent domestic fuel price hikes.
• Impact on Current Account
  • Higher import costs widen the current account deficit, putting further pressure on the rupee in a self-reinforcing cycle.
• Impact on Investor Sentiment
  • A rapidly depreciating currency can hurt investor confidence, accelerating capital outflows and creating further pressure on the rupee.
• Impact on External Debt
  • A weaker rupee increases the cost of servicing external debt in rupee terms, raising the financial burden on Indian companies and the government.

Comparison with the 2013 Taper Tantrum

• The current situation has drawn comparisons with the 2013 Taper Tantrum, when India was labelled among the "Fragile Five" economies. However, key differences include:

• India's forex reserves are significantly higher today.
• The macroeconomic fundamentals are stronger in many respects.
• The policy response toolkit has evolved, including options like swap lines and targeted interventions.

• Nevertheless, structural vulnerabilities remain, including high import dependence on crude oil and gold, and exposure to global monetary policy shifts.

Policy Responses

• RBI Interventions

• Dollar sales to defend the rupee.
• Forward market interventions to manage volatility.
• Restrictions on certain derivative contracts to curb speculation.

• Government Measures

• Higher import duties on gold to reduce non-essential imports.
• Considering cuts in withholding tax to attract foreign investors.
• Fuel price hikes to manage the burden of higher crude oil costs.
• PM's austerity appeal urging citizens to reduce gold and petrol consumption.

Way Forward

• Short-Term Measures

• Targeted RBI interventions to prevent disorderly depreciation.
• Attracting NRI deposits through schemes like FCNR(B) deposits.
• Diversifying crude oil sources to reduce dependence on West Asia.
• Promoting gold monetisation to channel idle gold into the economy.

• Long-Term Structural Reforms

• Boosting manufacturing exports through PLI and Make in India.
• Deepening financial markets to attract stable long-term capital.
• Strengthening forex reserves as a buffer against external shocks.
• Accelerating the renewable energy transition to reduce crude oil dependence.
• Enhancing competitiveness through labour, land, and capital market reforms.

Why in News?

• The President of India has promulgated the Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Amendment Ordinance, 2026 to increase the sanctioned strength of judges in the Supreme Court from 33 to 37, excluding the Chief Justice of India (CJI).
• Consequently, the total strength of the apex court, including the CJI, will rise from 34 to 38 judges.
• The ordinance amends Section 2 of the Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Act, 1956, and was issued under Article 123 of the Constitution after the Union Cabinet approved the proposal earlier this month.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Ordinance-Making Power of the President
• Need to Increase the Strength of the SC
• Other Reforms Needed in the Judiciary
• Conclusion

Ordinance-Making Power of the President:

• Constitutional provision: Article 123 empowers the President to promulgate ordinances when Parliament is not in session and immediate legislative action is required.
• Features:
  • Ordinances have the same force and effect as a law passed by Parliament.
  • They are executive-legislative instruments meant for temporary and urgent circumstances, not routine governance.
  • They are subject to Parliamentary approval; judicial review; and Constitutional limitations.
• Temporary nature:
  • The ordinance must be laid before both Houses of Parliament when they reconvene.
  • Will cease to operate if not approved within six weeks of reassembly.
  • Can also lapse if both Houses disapprove it, or may be withdrawn earlier by the President.
• Judicial position:
  • The SC established that ordinances are open to judicial review in the landmark cases of R.C. Cooper v. Union of India (1970), A.K. Roy v. Union of India (1982), and Krishna Kumar Singh v. State of Bihar (2017).
  • In cases such as D.C. Wadhwa v. State of Bihar (1987), it criticised repeated re-promulgation of ordinances, calling it a misuse of constitutional power.
• Real power: The Union Cabinet is the driving force behind this legislative process.

Need to Increase the Strength of the SC:

• Rising pendency: The judge-to-case ratio has become unsustainable, especially with rapidly rising appeals and special leave petitions (SLPs). For example,
  • Pendency has crossed 93,000 cases;
  • Post-COVID surge in e-filing has significantly increased case inflow;
  • Increasing constitutional litigation, PILs, commercial disputes, and service matters have added to the burden.
• Need for faster justice delivery:
  • Judicial delays weaken rule of law, hinder enforcement of Fundamental Rights, and reduce public trust in institutions.
  • The expansion aims to reduce delays in hearings and judgments; improve disposal rates; enable more Constitution and specialised benches; and strengthen citizens’ access to timely justice.
• Complexity in governance: Modern governance has expanded the Court’s responsibilities as a result of -
  • Federal disputes;
  • Electoral matters;
  • Digital privacy and technology-related litigation;
  • Environmental and climate justice cases; and
  • Economic and regulatory disputes.

Other Reforms Needed in the Judiciary:

• Strengthening the entire judicial pyramid: Merely increasing SC judges is insufficient unless subordinate courts and High Courts are also strengthened.
• Key reforms needed:
  • Fill vacancies promptly: Large vacancies persist in High Courts and subordinate judiciary. Timely appointments through the collegium and government coordination are essential.
  • Establish an All India Judicial Service (Article 312): This could improve recruitment quality and uniformity in lower judiciary.
  • Limit routine appeals to the SC: The SC should increasingly focus on constitutional and national importance cases rather than functioning as a regular appellate court.
  • Strengthen Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR): Promote mediation, arbitration, and Lok Adalats to reduce litigation pressure.
  • Expand judicial infrastructure: More courtrooms, staff, digital infrastructure, and research assistance are needed.
  • Institutionalise technology: AI-assisted case management; e-courts; virtual hearings; and intelligent scheduling systems.
  • National court management systems: Scientific case allocation and timeline-based disposal mechanisms can improve efficiency.
  • Separate constitution benches: Permanent Constitution Benches could ensure quicker resolution of major constitutional matters.

Conclusion:

• The decision to increase the sanctioned strength of the SC marks an important institutional response to India’s deepening judicial pendency crisis.
• While adding judges may provide immediate relief and improve disposal capacity, the larger challenge lies in comprehensive judicial reforms across all levels of the justice delivery system.

Context

• Competition is essential in every sphere of life, whether in business, sports, or politics.
• An industrialist once remarked that his greatest challenge was the lack of competition, despite his company dominating the market.
• Similarly, cricketers consider victories against strong opponents more meaningful than easy wins. In the same way, democracy derives its strength from healthy political competition.
• It allows citizens to choose between alternatives, hold governments accountable, and preserve democratic values.

Competition as the Foundation of Democracy

• Importance of Political Competition
  • Political competition acts as the haemoglobin of democracy. It gives citizens the freedom to remove governments and elect new representatives.
  • A democracy without opposition traps people in the idea of TINA; There Is No Alternative.
  • In such conditions, elections may continue, but genuine choice disappears.
  • Competition also motivates governments to improve their performance.
  • Just as businesses become more efficient due to market rivalry, political parties refine their policies when opponents constantly expose failures and weaknesses.
  • Strong opposition ensures accountability and prevents the concentration of unchecked power.
• Democracy and Public Trust
  • A government may legally acquire power, but it earns a true mandate only when citizens believe the electoral process was fair.
  • Elections without meaningful contestation create winners without a game. Democratic legitimacy depends not merely on voting, but on the existence of real alternatives.
  • Fair competition also gives losing parties hope that they can succeed in future elections. This faith strengthens the peaceful transfer of power, one of democracy’s greatest achievements.

Political Theory and Democratic Contestation

• Robert Dahl’s Democratic Perspective
  • Political scientist Robert Dahl argued that systems with high participation but low contestation cannot be considered true democracies.
  • He described such systems as plebiscitary autocracies. Voting alone is insufficient if citizens lack meaningful alternatives.
• Importance of Pluralism
  • Democracy depends on pluralism, ideological diversity, and open political rivalry. Different political parties represent varying social groups, interests, and ideologies.
  • The weakening of opposition parties reduces democratic accountability and encourages excessive centralization of power.

The Role of Neutral Institutions

• Need for a Level Playing Field
  • Competition can survive only when there is a level playing field. In democratic systems, institutions like the Election Commission of India (ECI) act as neutral referees responsible for ensuring free and fair elections.
  • If the referee appears biased, even legitimate victories lose credibility. In sports, spectators question results when umpires seem partial.
  • Similarly, elections lose public trust when constitutional institutions are accused of favouritism.
• Institutional Neutrality and Democratic Confidence
  • Neutral institutions are essential for maintaining democratic confidence. Citizens must believe that electoral rules apply equally to all parties.
  • Without institutional neutrality, opposition groups lose morale, and voters begin to doubt the fairness of elections.

Critique of the Election Commission and the West Bengal Elections

• Controversy Surrounding the Special Intensive Revision (SIR)
  • The West Bengal Assembly elections became controversial due to the SIR of electoral rolls.
  • Large-scale deletions of voters and the classification of many electors as under adjudication raised serious concerns regarding electoral fairness.
  • Analysts pointed out that the number of deleted voters exceeded victory margins in several constituencies, suggesting that the outcome may have been influenced by the revision process.
• Exclusion of Electors and Administrative Concerns
  • Nearly 27 lakh electors were reportedly removed after a rushed verification process conducted under severe time pressure.
  • Many affected individuals were directed toward non-existent Appellate Tribunals, leaving their voting rights uncertain.
  • The inability to identify genuinely ineligible voters under Article 326 further weakened confidence in the process.

The Danger of a One-Party Democracy

• Decline of Political Opposition
  • The gradual weakening of opposition parties at both state and national levels raises fears of a one-party system.
  • Ideas such as One Nation, One Election and Opposition-mukt Bharat appear to reduce political contestation rather than strengthen democratic participation.
• Threat to Democratic Values
  • A democracy without opposition becomes a one-horse race, lacking accountability, public choice, and political excitement.
  • If institutions appear partial and challengers become too weak, elections may continue formally while democracy weakens internally.

Conclusion

• Elections alone cannot guarantee legitimacy unless citizens trust the fairness of the process and believe that real alternatives exist.
• Strong opposition parties, independent institutions, and fair electoral practices are essential to preserving democratic values.
• Just as sports lose excitement without rivalry and businesses stagnate without competitors, nations weaken when political opposition disappears.
• The true strength of democracy lies not in guaranteed victories, but in the constant possibility of defeat.

Why in news?

The Calcutta High Court’s Port Blair circuit bench has agreed to hear a PIL challenging the Great Nicobar infrastructure project, which alleges violations of the Forest Rights Act, 2006, particularly regarding tribal consent.

The Union Government and the Andaman and Nicobar administration objected to the PIL’s maintainability and related issues, including the reduction of buffer zones around Galathea and Campbell Bay National Parks, but the court rejected these objections.

The ₹81,000 crore Great Nicobar project includes an integrated township, transshipment port, solar and gas-based power plant, and a dual-use military-civilian airport.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• The Legal Challenge Before the Calcutta High Court
• Why the Petition Challenges Consent Under the Forest Rights Act?
• Concerns Over the Rights of the Shompen Tribe

The Legal Challenge Before the Calcutta High Court

• In a 2024 PIL, Meena Gupta has challenged the procedures followed under the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006, alleging that they were unlawful in the approval process for the Great Nicobar infrastructure project.
• The petition specifically questions:
  • The constitution of the Sub-Divisional Level Committee (SDLC) for Campbell Bay tehsil
  • The Gram Sabha meetings held on August 12, 2022 in Campbell Bay, Laxmi Nagar, and Govind Nagar
  • The resolutions passed in these meetings consenting to forest land diversion
  • The Recognition of Forest Rights (RoFR) certificate issued on August 18, 2022, declaring that all forest rights had been settled
• The plea argues that the Andaman and Nicobar administration relied on illegal Gram Sabha resolutions, the RoFR certificate, and SDLC consent to obtain forest clearance from the environment ministry for the Great Nicobar project.

Why the Petition Challenges Consent Under the Forest Rights Act?

• The petition argues that the process used to obtain tribal consent for the Great Nicobar project was procedurally flawed and illegal, as it did not comply with the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.
• Under the FRA, forest land can be diverted for a project only after forest rights claims are identified and settled.
• The plea alleges that not a single forest rights claim has been settled on Great Nicobar Island, making the clearance process legally questionable.
• Issues with the Sub-Divisional Level Committee (SDLC)
  • The petition claims the SDLC was improperly constituted:
    • FRA rules require at least two Scheduled Tribe members, including one woman
    • The committee reportedly had only one Nicobarese member, violating the prescribed norms
• Questionable Gram Sabha Consent
• The Gram Sabhas that approved land diversion were allegedly settler panchayats meant for non-tribal residents, not legitimate Gram Sabhas of Scheduled Tribes or forest dwellers under the FRA.
• These bodies approved diversion of 166.10 sq km of land, including protected and deemed forest, but the plea argues they had no legal authority to grant such consent.
• Absence of Forest Rights Committee Process
  • The petition states there is no record of a Forest Rights Committee, which is supposed to initiate claims under the FRA before a Gram Sabha is convened.
• Dispute Over Tribal Consent
  • Nicobarese Community - The petition challenges the claim that the tribal council chairperson’s consent represented the entire Nicobarese community, noting that the council later withdrew its consent in November 2022.
  • Shompen Tribe - The plea argues that the consent of the Shompen tribe, a largely uncontacted indigenous group, was obtained through a government organisation (AAJVS) rather than directly from the tribe, raising serious legal and ethical concerns.

Concerns Over the Rights of the Shompen Tribe

• The petition argues that the Great Nicobar project would severely disrupt the habitat of the Shompen tribe, particularly three settlements located within the proposed development zone.
• It claims that forests used for foraging, hunting, horticulture, worship, and access to clean drinking water would be destroyed, threatening their rights to food, water, shelter, and cultural survival.
• The plea points to the 1972 settlement of ex-servicemen on Great Nicobar’s east coast, arguing that this earlier development disturbed Shompen habitation and pushed the tribe deeper into forest interiors.
• The petition raises concerns over whether the Forest Rights Act (FRA) adequately protects communities like the Shompen, who are semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers with distinct ways of life.
• The plea argues that the Shompen have a right to self-determination and to live according to their traditional lifestyle, and therefore their habitat cannot be taken away through state-led development.
• The petition contends that the Shompen cannot provide informed consent because they do not read or understand the languages used by the administration, and the legal concepts of rights settlement or consent to forest diversion are alien to their way of life.

Why in news?

India’s rapid expansion of renewable energy is creating a major power management challenge because solar and wind energy are intermittent, while electricity demand remains continuous and often does not match generation patterns.

Solar power stops after sunset, and wind output varies with weather, creating supply-demand mismatches that can strain grid stability.

This challenge is especially significant as renewables account for 53% (283 GW) of India’s total installed power capacity of 532 GW, with solar contributing over 150 GW. As a result, energy storage systems have become essential for balancing supply and demand, though India’s storage capacity remains inadequate.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• What is Energy Storage?
• Major Types of Energy Storage Systems
• India’s Energy Storage Capacity and Expansion Plans
• India’s Energy Storage Expansion Plans and Key Challenge
• Global Trends in Energy Storage

What is Energy Storage?

• Energy storage refers to systems that store excess electricity generated from renewable sources such as solar and wind during periods of high generation and release it later when demand rises but power generation is low.
• These systems convert electricity into a storable form and then reconvert it into electricity when needed.

Major Types of Energy Storage Systems

• Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) - Pumped Hydro Storage uses surplus electricity to pump water from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir. When electricity demand rises, the stored water is released downhill through turbines to generate power.
• Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) - BESS store electricity chemically and release it when needed. Lithium-ion batteries, especially Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP) batteries, dominate grid-scale storage due to their declining costs, high efficiency, and long lifespan. In 2025, LFP batteries accounted for over 90% of annual global storage additions.
• Concentrated Solar Thermal Storage - This technology uses mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver, heating materials such as molten salt to store thermal energy. The stored heat is later used to generate steam and produce electricity.
• Compressed-Air Energy Storage - Excess electricity is used to compress air and store it in underground caverns or tanks. When demand increases, the compressed air is released to drive turbines and generate electricity.
• Flywheel Energy Storage - Flywheels store electricity as rotational energy by spinning a rotor at very high speeds. They are especially useful for instant power injection, grid stability, and managing short-term fluctuations.
• Gravity Energy Storage - This system uses electricity to lift heavy weights to higher elevations. When power is needed, the weights are lowered, converting gravitational potential energy back into electricity through generators.

India’s Energy Storage Capacity and Expansion Plans

• India’s energy storage deployment has not kept pace with the rapid expansion of renewable energy, raising concerns about the grid’s ability to efficiently manage a growing share of intermittent power.
• Currently:
  • Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS): ~0.27 GW
  • Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS): ~7.2 GW
• India is primarily focusing on expanding the two major storage technologies:
  • Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) for short-duration storage
  • Pumped Hydro Storage Projects (PSP/PHS) for long-duration storage
• According to the Central Electricity Authority (CEA), India’s total energy storage capacity is projected to reach 174 GW / 888 GWh by 2035-36, comprising: 80 GW / 321 GWh of BESS; 94 GW / 567 GWh of PHS.
• The CEA expects 4–6 hour duration storage systems to become increasingly critical after 2030 as renewable energy integration deepens.
• Role of Different Storage Technologies
  • BESS: Best suited for short-duration storage and quick balancing needs
  • PHS/PSP: Better suited for long-duration storage and round-the-clock renewable energy supply, especially for commercial and industrial consumers

India’s Energy Storage Expansion Plans and Key Challenge

• India is significantly scaling up its energy storage infrastructure across both pumped hydro and battery storage technologies.
• A key concern is India’s heavy reliance on imported battery storage components.
  • India imports 75–80% of its lithium-ion cells.
  • Lithium-ion cells account for around 80% of the total cost of battery storage systems.
• The CEA has warned that global battery manufacturing is heavily concentrated in one Asian country, creating risks related to: Geopolitical tensions; Trade disruptions; Price volatility.
• This dependence could become a major obstacle to India’s long-term energy storage and renewable energy ambitions.

Global Trends in Energy Storage

• Globally, Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) remains one of the most widely used electricity storage technologies, with an installed capacity of around 160 GW, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency.
• Leading Countries in PHS - China (~66 GW); Japan (21.8 GW); United States (18.9 GW); Europe (collectively ~28 GW)
• Rapid Growth of Battery Energy Storage
  • BESS are expanding rapidly worldwide, with total installed global capacity estimated at around 270 GW.
  • In 2025 alone, 108 GW of new battery storage capacity was added globally—representing a 40% increase over 2024, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA).
  • China remained the global leader in battery storage deployment in 2025, accounting for nearly 60% of new global additions, followed by the United States and Europe.
  • Battery storage deployment is also accelerating in emerging regions such as Australia and parts of the Middle East, where storage is increasingly viewed as essential for electricity security and renewable energy integration.

Context:

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s visit to Oslo for the third India-Nordic Summit comes at a time when India’s engagement with Nordic countries has evolved significantly.
• Earlier focused mainly on climate cooperation, innovation, digitalisation, and the blue economy, the partnership is now acquiring greater strategic and economic significance due to changing global geopolitics.
• Key drivers include the Ukraine war’s impact on Europe’s security architecture, tensions within the trans-Atlantic alliance, and rising strategic interest in the Arctic region, including Greenland.

The Arctic’s Growing Strategic Importance

• The Arctic, once largely insulated from geopolitical rivalry, is now becoming a key arena of competition over shipping routes, energy resources, critical minerals, and strategic infrastructure.
• Changing Security Dynamics in the Arctic
  • The accession of Finland and Sweden to NATO has transformed Nordic security architecture, leaving Russia as the Arctic Council’s only non-NATO member.
  • At the same time, the Russia-China partnership has expanded into the Arctic through cooperation in shipping and energy.
• Why the Nordics Matter More to India?
  • The changing Arctic landscape has increased strategic convergence between India and Nordic countries in areas such as technology, supply chains, maritime security, and green energy.
• Strategic Roles of Nordic Countries
  • Norway: Balancing scientific cooperation with growing security concerns under its revised High North strategy.
  • Denmark (via Greenland): Important for emerging Arctic sea routes and critical mineral access.
  • Sweden and Finland: Offer advanced defence technologies, innovation ecosystems, and Arctic expertise.
  • Iceland: Provides geothermal knowledge relevant to India’s Himalayan regions.
• Militarisation and Technological Transformation
  • The Arctic is increasingly shaped by deterrence, military positioning, and energy competition, with emerging technologies such as autonomous underwater vehicles, satellite seabed mapping, and concerns over undersea cable vulnerabilities.
• India’s Arctic Presence
  • India became an Arctic Council observer in 2013 and has established a presence through:
    • Himadri research station
    • IndARC underwater observatory
    • Gruvebadet atmospheric laboratory (Norway)
  • While India has a scientific footprint in the Arctic, the region’s growing geopolitical importance means scientific engagement alone will not be sufficient to protect India’s strategic interests.

India as an Emerging Arctic Stakeholder

• Although India is not an Arctic nation, it has significant stakes in the region.
• The Arctic is warming more than three times faster than the global average, with consequences for India’s climate and economy.
• Arctic ice loss, particularly in the Barents-Kara Sea, has been linked to variations in India’s summer monsoon.
• Rising polar ice melt also threatens India’s coastline, ports, and island territories through sea-level rise.
• Melting Arctic ice is opening new possibilities for shipping, resource extraction, and military activity.
• The increasingly navigable Northern Sea Route along Russia’s Arctic coast could reshape global trade and maritime connectivity.
• Potential New Maritime Corridor
  • Extending the Chennai–Vladivostok corridor to Murmansk and the Nordic region could create a strategic maritime link connecting India, Japan, Russia, and Northern Europe.
  • India’s Arctic engagement with the Nordics can complement, rather than conflict with, its partnership with Russia.

Policy Measures India Should Consider

• Build Arctic Shipping Capacity - India should develop a small fleet of five Arctic-capable ice-class tankers by 2030-31 under the Shipbuilding Financial Assistance Policy to avoid missing early strategic opportunities.
• Create an India-Arctic Economic Forum - Such a platform could connect Indian businesses with opportunities in shipping, energy, infrastructure, and skilled manpower in the Arctic region.
• Strengthen Climate Cooperation - India should promote an Arctic-Himalaya Climate Data Corridor with Nordic countries for joint monitoring of climate linkages affecting monsoons and sea-level rise.
• Appoint a Special Arctic Envoy - Unlike the other four Asian observer states in the Arctic Council, India does not have a Special Envoy for Arctic Affairs, making this an important institutional gap to address.

Key Focus Areas in India-Nordic Strategic Cooperation

• Clean Energy and Green Technology Partnership
  • Nordic countries are global leaders in offshore wind, hydrogen, electric mobility, and green shipping, while India’s clean energy transition needs technology, investment, and reliable partnerships.
  • Cooperation should move beyond simple trade to joint development and manufacturing in areas such as offshore wind, green hydrogen, and grid-balancing technologies.
• Supply Chain Diversification and Critical Minerals
  • Nordic countries can help India diversify supply chains amid concerns over China’s dominance in critical mineral processing:
    • Norway: Deep-sea mining potential
    • Sweden: Rare earths and iron ore
    • Denmark (via Greenland): Strategic mineral access
  • Nordic strengths in telecommunications, semiconductors, batteries, artificial intelligence, and advanced materials align with India’s manufacturing ambitions and engineering capabilities.
• Strengthening Maritime Cooperation
  • Maritime collaboration is strategically important as India depends on secure sea routes, resilient ports, and efficient logistics.
  • Nordic countries bring expertise in:
    • Shipping technology
    • Maritime digitisation
    • Shipbuilding innovation
    • Sustainable port infrastructure
  • Recent disruptions in the Strait of Hormuz have highlighted maritime vulnerabilities, making diversification of routes and partnerships increasingly important.
• Mutual Strategic Benefits
  • For the Nordics, India offers market scale, economic growth, and a trusted democratic partner in the Indo-Pacific. For India, the Nordics provide technology, capital, and expertise without hegemonic pressures.

Towards a Long-Term Strategic Partnership

• As the Arctic becomes more strategically contested, the Oslo Summit should mark a shift from occasional engagement to a sustained India-Nordic strategic partnership.

About Latvia:

• Location: It is a Baltic country situated in North Eastern Europe.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by 4 Nations: by Estonia in the north; Lithuania in the south; Belarus in the southeast and Russia in the east.
• Maritime Border: It lies along the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Riga.
• Capital City: Riga
• It is a member of the European Union (EU) and NATO.
• Geographical Features of Latvia:
  • Climate: The climate in Latvia is temperate
  • Highest Point: The highest point of Latvia is Gaizinkalns at 311.6 m (1,022 ft).
  • Rivers: Its important rivers include the Gauja (Longest River) Daugava, Lielupe, Venta and Salaca.
  • Natural Resources: It majorly consists of limestone; gypsum, dolomite, peat, and other construction material are some of the important natural resources of Latvia.

About United Nations Forum on Forests:

• It is an intergovernmental body established in 2000 by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) 
• Its objective is to promote sustainable forest management and conservation worldwide.
• Its mandate includes:
  • Strengthening long-term political commitment to forests;
  • Facilitating policy dialogue among countries and stakeholders;
  • Promoting international cooperation, including financial and technical support; and
  • Considering future options for international forest policy, including legal frameworks.
• The forum holds annual sessions at the UN Headquarters, alternating between technical discussions (odd years) and policy-level dialogues (even years).
• Members: It is composed of all United Nations Member Statesand States members of specialised agencies, participating on a full and equal basis.
  • India is a founding member of the UNFF, and continues to play a proactive role in shaping forest-related global policy.
• Headquarters: New York, United States
• It has established the Global Forest Financing Facilitation Network (GFFFN) to facilitate access to and effective use of funding for forests, to share data and best practices.

About Western Hoolock Gibbon:

• It is the smallest and fastest of all apes.
• Habitat: It is found in a range of forest types, from moist deciduous to evergreen, sub-tropical to lowland.
• Distribution: It is found in all the states of the north-east, restricted between the south of the Brahmaputra river and east of the Dibang river. Outside India, it is found in Bangladesh and Myanmar.
• Characteristics of Western Hoolock Gibbon:
  • They are diurnal and arboreal, brachiating through the trees with their long arms.
  • They are monogamous (same partner throughout life).
  • They live in small families and communicate with other gibbons by vocalisation.
  • Life span: 25 years.
• Threats: Habitat destruction illegal logging presented the greatest threat.
• Conservation Status
  • IUCN: Endangered
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act of India, 1972: Schedule I

About Captagon:

• It is a highly addictive amphetamine-type drug, which is produced mainly in Syria.
• The original Captagon contained fenetylline, a synthetic drug of the phenethylamine family to which amphetamine also belongs.
• It is a synthetic drug which was originally manufactured in Germany in the 1960s and 1970s where it was intended to treat attention deficit disorders.
• It was commercially sold in several countries until the 1980s and was banned due to fears of its highly addictive nature.
• It was made illegal in 1986 in most countries and discontinued in medical markets.
• It was later placed under Schedule II of the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances.
• It is commonly known as “poor man’s cocaine,” has emerged as the drug of choice among young adults throughout the Middle East and North Africa.
• It contains fenethylline, a synthetic amphetamine, caffeine, and other stimulants.
  • Fenethylline is metabolized by the body into two molecules: amphetamine and theophylline, both of which are stimulants.
• It is considered highly addictive and has become a major source of illegal trafficking and funding in conflict-hit regions.