Why in the News?

• The Ministry of Home Affairs is increasingly deploying AI tools for predictive policing, cybercrime detection, and financial fraud prevention.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• AI (AI in Internal Security, Key Initiatives & Tools, etc.)
• News Summary

Artificial Intelligence in Internal Security

• Artificial Intelligence is transforming governance and security frameworks globally.
• In India, AI is being integrated into internal security systems to enhance surveillance, crime detection, and decision-making capabilities.
• Role of AI in Internal Security

• Enables predictive policing by analysing crime patterns.
• Facilitates real-time surveillance and monitoring.
• Enhances cybercrime detection through data analytics.
• Improves coordination among law enforcement agencies.
• AI acts as a force multiplier by enabling faster and more accurate responses to security threats.

Key Initiatives and Tools

• India has developed multiple AI-driven tools to strengthen internal security.
• Predictive Policing
  • AI systems analyse historical data to identify crime-prone areas and patterns.
  • This helps police forces deploy resources more efficiently and prevent crimes before they occur.
• Dark Web Monitoring
  • AI-based tools monitor dark web platforms to track:
    • Phishing campaigns
    • Fraud networks
    • Criminal discussions
  • This enhances the capability to detect cyber threats proactively.

• Mule Hunter Application
  • The Mule Hunter system uses AI and machine learning to identify “mule accounts” used for financial fraud.
  • Developed in collaboration with RBI Innovation Hub.
  • Uses behavioural and transaction data for suspect scoring.
  • Enables real-time detection and blocking of fraudulent transactions.

• Surakshini Initiative
  • Surakshini is a proposed AI-based system for tackling online harmful content.
  • Focuses on Child Sexual Exploitative and Abuse Material (CSEAM) and Non-Consensual Intimate Imagery (NCII).
  • Creates a hash database to prevent re-upload of such content.
  • Shifts from reactive takedown to preventive monitoring.

• AI-based Complaint Systems
  • The government is upgrading the cybercrime helpline (1930) with AI-assisted complaint registration.
  • Supports regional languages.
  • Improves accessibility and response time.

News Summary

• The Parliamentary Standing Committee report highlights the increasing role of AI in India’s internal security framework.
• Expansion of AI in Security
  • As mentioned in the report, AI is being used as a “critical enabler” for enhancing operational capabilities across police forces and paramilitary units.
  • This includes real-time surveillance, behavioural analysis, and crime pattern recognition.
• Institutional Collaboration
  • The Ministry of Home Affairs is collaborating with institutions such as:
    • IIT Bombay for AI model development.
    • Reserve Bank Innovation Hub for financial fraud detection.
  • These collaborations aim to build robust and scalable AI systems.

• Cybercrime Monitoring and Prevention
  • The Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) is central to AI deployment.
  • AI tools are used to monitor dark web activities and scam networks.
  • Complaint registration is being modernised with AI support.
  • Additionally, AI models are used to screen cyber tipline data for harmful content.

• Financial Fraud Detection
  • The integration of Mule Hunter with banking systems allows:
    • Real-time suspect scoring of transactions.
    • Early identification of fraudulent accounts.
    • Prevention of financial cybercrimes.
  • This marks a shift toward proactive fraud prevention.

• Content Moderation and Online Safety
  • Surakshini will introduce a preventive content moderation framework.
  • Automated hash-matching will prevent the upload of illegal content.
  • Dashboard will track complaints, FIRs, and takedown timelines.
  • This enhances transparency and coordination among agencies.

• Emerging Technologies in Immigration
  • The Immigration, Visa Foreigners Registration and Tracking (IVFRT) 3.0 system, to be launched in April 2026, will integrate AI and blockchain.
  • Enables intelligent traveller profiling.
  • Improves security and authenticity of records.

Challenges and Concerns

• Despite its advantages, AI deployment in internal security raises several concerns.

• Privacy Issues: Increased surveillance may affect individual privacy rights.
• Data Security: Risk of misuse or breach of sensitive data.
• Algorithmic Bias: AI systems may reflect biases in training data.
• Technological Limitations: Some applications, such as document forgery detection, are still under development.

Why in the News?

• The Centre has proposed amendments to the IT Rules, 2021, to expand regulation over social media users and independent news creators.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Online Content Regulation (Key Features of IT Rules, Proposed Amendments, etc.)
• News Summary

Regulation of Online Content in India

• India regulates online content primarily through the Information Technology Act, 2000 and the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021.
• Key Features of IT Rules, 2021

• Provide a framework for the regulation of digital media and intermediaries.
• Introduce a three-tier grievance redressal mechanism.
• Require social media platforms to exercise due diligence.
• Enable government oversight over digital news and OTT platforms.

• Safe Harbour Provision

• Section 79 of the IT Act grants “safe harbour” protection to intermediaries.
• Platforms are not liable for user-generated content if due diligence is followed.
• Failure to comply with government directions can result in loss of this protection.

• Role of Government

• Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) regulates intermediaries.
• Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (MIB) oversees digital news and content.
• Blocking orders are issued under Section 69A of the IT Act.

• Significance

• Helps tackle misinformation, fake news, and harmful content.
• Strengthens the accountability of digital platforms.
• Enables faster grievance redressal mechanisms.

Proposed Amendments to IT Rules

• The Centre has proposed significant changes to expand regulatory control over online content.
• Inclusion of Individual Users

• The rules may now apply to individual users posting news or current affairs content.
• Previously, regulation was limited to publishers and platforms.

• Direct Takedown and Blocking Powers

• MIB may be empowered to issue direct blocking orders to users and platforms.
• It can also require users to modify or apologise for content.

• Expansion of the Inter-Departmental Committee

• The Inter-Departmental Committee (IDC) will have broader powers.
• It can now hear a wider range of grievances beyond code violations.

• Legal Status of Advisories

• Government advisories to platforms may become legally binding.
• Non-compliance could affect safe harbour protection.

News Summary

• The recent reports highlight a major shift in India’s approach to regulating online content.
• Expansion of Regulatory Scope
  • Independent news creators on platforms such as YouTube, Instagram, and X may be brought under the regulatory framework.
  • This includes individuals who may not be professional journalists but create content related to current affairs.
• Increased Government Oversight
  • The proposed amendments empower the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting to:

• Issue blocking orders directly.
• Seek information about creators from platforms.
• Enforce compliance through regulatory mechanisms.
• This marks a shift from platform-based regulation to direct regulation of users.

• Changes in Takedown Mechanism
  • The government plans to allow takedown notices to be sent directly to individual users.
  • Earlier, such notices were limited to online news publishers.
  • Additionally, the time window for compliance has reportedly been reduced significantly, increasing pressure on platforms to act quickly.
• Impact on Social Media Platforms

• Advisories will become part of due diligence obligations.
• Non-compliance could lead to legal liability.
• Platforms may take down content more aggressively to retain safe harbour.

• Concerns Over Freedom of Expression
  • The proposed changes have raised concerns among civil society groups.
  • Critics argue it may lead to excessive censorship.
  • The Internet Freedom Foundation has termed it a major expansion of regulatory power.
  • There are also concerns about potential misuse against dissenting or satirical content.

• Recent Enforcement Trends
  • The reports indicate an increase in takedown orders in recent weeks.
  • Content related to political criticism and satire has been targeted.
  • AI-generated deepfakes and misinformation are cited as key concerns.
  • This reflects a tightening regulatory environment for digital content.

Challenges and Issues

• Balancing Regulation and Free Speech: Ensuring regulation does not infringe Article 19(1)(a).
• Ambiguity in Definitions: Broad definitions may include unintended users.
• Over-compliance by Platforms: Fear of liability may lead to excessive content removal.
• Judicial Scrutiny: Some provisions of the IT Rules are already under court review.

Why in news?

The recent surrender of a top CPI (Maoist) leader signals a major collapse of the insurgency’s leadership and suggests the movement is nearing its end.

However, while the armed struggle is declining, deeper issues of governance and inequality remain unresolved. The key challenge now is whether the state can convert its security success into lasting public trust, and whether far-left politics can still re-emerge in a changing but unequal India.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• How the Indian State Gained the Upper Hand Over Maoists?
• Origins of Maoism in India
• Managing the Vacuum After Maoist Decline
• Can Maoism Rise Again

How the Indian State Gained the Upper Hand Over Maoists?

• Over the past decade, the Maoist movement has weakened due to sustained pressure on both its leadership and ground network.
• Top leaders from the Central Committee and Politburo have been eliminated, arrested, or surrendered, leading to a fragmented command structure.
• At the same time, improved intelligence, local police involvement, and specialised forces have reduced the Maoists’ traditional advantages in terrain and surprise.
• Sustained military pressure, better governance outreach, and infrastructure development have together weakened the Maoist insurgency. Even Maoist leadership has acknowledged the decline, with cadres being advised to either relocate or surrender.
• Strategic Policy and Security Push
  • The foundation of this success dates back to 2006, when the government identified Maoism as a major internal security threat.
  • A comprehensive strategy was later implemented under the Ministry of Home Affairs, involving large deployment of central forces, modernisation of state police, and the “clear, hold and develop” approach.
  • This meant clearing Maoist strongholds, maintaining control through camps, and extending governance through infrastructure and public services.
  • Subsequent governments continued and intensified this strategy.
• Infrastructure and Ground-Level Expansion
  • The state significantly expanded its presence in remote areas by building over 15,000 km of roads, installing 9,000+ mobile towers, fortifying 656 police stations, and setting up nearly 200 security camps in key Maoist regions, especially in Chhattisgarh and the Andhra–Odisha belt.
• Sharp Decline in Violence and Influence
  • The results have been substantial. Maoist-related violence and deaths have fallen by over 80% since 2010.
  • Affected districts have reduced from nearly 200 in the early 2000s to just 38 by 2025, with only 7 districts currently classified as LWE-affected, and just 3 as most affected (Bijapur, Narayanpur, Sukma).

Origins of Maoism in India

• Maoism in India traces its roots to the Naxalbari uprising of 1967, where early groups viewed India as a “semi-feudal, semi-colonial” society.
• They believed armed struggle was necessary to secure land, dignity, and justice for the poor.
• Spread Across Marginalised Regions
  • Over time, Maoists expanded across the “Red Corridor”, covering parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.
  • They gained support by embedding themselves among landless peasants, Dalits, and Adivasis, especially in areas where the state was weak, exploitative, or absent.
• Structural Causes Behind the Movement
  • Several deep-rooted issues created space for Maoism:
    • Unequal land distribution and failed land reforms
    • Bonded labour and caste-based oppression
    • Displacement without proper rehabilitation due to development projects
    • Corruption and abuse by forest and police authorities
    • Exclusion of tribal communities from decisions about land and resources
• Role of Maoists in Local Governance
• In many remote villages, Maoists acted as an alternative authority.
• They resolved disputes, enforced wages, and punished local elites, combining coercion with a sense of justice where formal governance was ineffective.
• State Absence as a Key Factor
  • Experts note that Maoist influence grew not just due to poverty, but because of the absence or invisibility of the state.
  • In many isolated regions, Maoists became the only functioning authority people experienced.

Managing the Vacuum After Maoist Decline

• As Maoist influence fades, the key risk is not their return but the emergence of new alienation or criminal networks in areas where they once controlled power and resources.
• Recognising this, the government has identified 31 “Legacy Thrust” districts for continued security and development support to prevent relapse.
• Focus on Development and Governance
  • The long-term solution lies in effective delivery of development—roads, schools, hospitals, and basic services.
  • Past initiatives, such as infrastructure expansion in Andhra Pradesh and CRPF field hospitals in Chhattisgarh, showed that when the state delivers, people respond positively, even in conflict zones.
• Building Local Institutions
  • A sustainable transition requires replacing external security dominance with local governance structures.
  • This includes recruiting locals into police and administration, expanding police stations, and ensuring functioning schools, healthcare, and grievance redress systems.
  • Experts stress that success depends on strong political will and responsive bureaucracy.
  • Clear direction from leadership must translate into effective governance on the ground to consolidate gains and prevent any resurgence.

Can Maoism Rise Again

• Experts believe a full-scale revival of Maoism is unlikely, as the traditional model of controlling isolated regions has been weakened by better connectivity, roads, mobile networks, and social media, which have increased awareness and aspirations.
  • Earlier, Maoists thrived by dominating remote areas and acting as the only “state.”
• Internal Decline of the Movement
  • The movement has also weakened from within.
  • Declining ideological strength, infiltration of non-committed elements, and failure to attract educated youth have reduced its appeal and organisational strength.
• Inequality: A Continuing Risk Factor
  • While some argue that poverty has not led to widespread urban insurgency, others caution that rising inequality and visible disparities could still create space for far-left ideas, especially if grievances deepen.
  • Instead of a return to armed insurgency, the future may see issue-based, non-violent or low-intensity radicalism in urban and peri-urban areas—focused on land rights, environmental concerns, and job insecurity.
• Role of State Legitimacy
  • With access to multiple viewpoints through digital media, people are less likely to see violence as the only solution.
  • However, the state’s credibility and governance, not just its security strength, will determine whether Maoist-like spaces re-emerge.

Why in news?

The RBI asked banks to limit their foreign currency exposure to $100 million per day to control the falling rupee, amid rising oil prices and inflation concerns due to the West Asia conflict. Banks must follow this rule by April 10.

However, the move did not stop the rupee from weakening—it fell below 95 per dollar and closed around 94.8, while oil prices stayed above $100 per barrel. The decision has also worried banks, as it may lead to financial losses due to market fluctuations.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• RBI's Currency Cap: Stemming the Rupee's Fall
• Why Banks Are Worried About the RBI’s Forex Cap?
• More Measures Likely if Rupee Weakness Continues

RBI's Currency Cap: Stemming the Rupee's Fall

• RBI introduced a cap on banks' foreign currency exposure to stabilise the sharply falling rupee and protect India's dwindling foreign exchange reserves, both of which have come under severe pressure since the West Asian conflict began in late February.
• The rupee has hit a historic low of ₹94.81 against the dollar — a fall of four per cent since the war started — having successively breached the 92, 93, and 94 levels in March alone.
• What the Cap Does?
  • Previously, banks were allowed to hold net open positions (foreign currency exposure) up to 25% of their total capital.
  • The RBI has now significantly tightened this limit. Banks have been directed to unwind large currency positions by April 10, a move designed to trigger a temporary surge in dollar supply and provide immediate relief to the rupee.
  • Notably, the RBI has shifted its strategy from direct market intervention (selling dollars from reserves) to regulatory tightening — a deliberate move to preserve its forex "war chest".
  • Despite this shift in strategy, the RBI's earlier direct interventions have already taken a toll.
  • Forex reserves have fallen by over $30 billion to $698.34 billion since the conflict began — a significant depletion driven by the central bank's dollar sales to defend the rupee.
• The FPI Exodus: Fueling the Pressure
  • A key driver of rupee weakness has been relentless foreign investor selling.
  • Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs) were net sellers on every single trading day in March.
  • Several factors have contributed to this sustained exodus:
    • weakness in global equity markets,
    • the rupee's steady depreciation,
    • fears of declining Gulf remittances, and
    • concerns over the impact of high crude oil prices on India's growth and corporate earnings.
• The Broader Warning
  • While the RBI's move signals heightened concern over currency volatility, it also underscores the fragility in India's external balances amid rising oil prices and capital outflows — a combination that will continue to test the central bank's resolve in the weeks ahead.

Why Banks Are Worried About the RBI’s Forex Cap?

• Banks are concerned about the RBI’s new forex exposure cap due to its quick implementation timeline.
• They have requested a transition period of about three months, as an immediate rollout could force them to adjust positions abruptly, increasing the risk of losses.
• Risk of Large-Scale Losses
  • Banks currently hold large dollar positions, and enforcing the cap quickly may require them to unwind exposures worth $11–15 billion across the sector.
  • Selling at unfavourable exchange rates could lead to mark-to-market losses, affecting their treasury books and reducing profits for the March quarter.
  • The new restrictions could also hurt banks’ earnings by limiting currency arbitrage opportunities between onshore and offshore markets.
  • This would reduce an important source of trading income.
• Broader Market Concerns
  • Stricter domestic rules may shift trading activity to offshore markets, where regulations are looser.
  • This could encourage speculative bets against the rupee abroad, increasing volatility and potentially weakening the currency further.

More Measures Likely if Rupee Weakness Continues

• Market observers believe that if the rupee continues to fall, the RBI may introduce additional measures to stabilise the currency and protect forex reserves.
• Lessons from Past Crises
  • During earlier crises like the global financial crisis and taper tantrum, then RBI Governor Raghuram Rajan used multiple tools.
  • These included attracting foreign inflows through the FCNR(B) scheme, which brought in over $30 billion, offering dollar swap windows for oil companies, and raising repo rates to control inflation and boost investor confidence.
    • An FCNR (B) — Foreign Currency Non-Resident (Bank) — account is a fixed deposit account for NRIs/PIOs to hold foreign currency in India.
• Policy and Regulatory Interventions
  • The RBI also eased rules for foreign investments (FPIs and ECBs) and imposed import restrictions, especially on gold, to reduce outflows.
  • These steps helped increase reserves and stabilise the rupee.
  • If the situation worsens, the RBI still has a range of tools—including attracting capital inflows, tightening monetary policy, and managing forex demand—to support the rupee and strengthen reserves.

Context

• The principle of democratic representation in India, as outlined in Article 81, requires that parliamentary seats be distributed among States in proportion to their population.
• This principle functioned effectively in earlier decades when population differences were limited.
• However, with India now the world’s most populous nation and significant demographic divergence across States, strict adherence to population-based allocation raises concerns of fairness.
• The upcoming Census 2026 and subsequent delimitation exercise present an opportunity to reassess this framework.

Changing Demographic Realities

• The 84th Constitutional Amendment Act (2002) extended the freeze on parliamentary seats to encourage population stabilisation.
• Over time, most States have made progress toward achieving the Total Fertility Rate (TFR) of 2.1, the level required for stable population growth.
• Yet, disparities persist, with some States maintaining higher fertility rates than others. This uneven progress has created a paradox.
• States that achieved early success in controlling population growth now exhibit lower population increases, while others continue to grow rapidly.
• If representation is based solely on population, high-fertility States could gain greater political representation, while low-fertility States may lose influence despite better governance outcomes. This imbalance challenges the principle of equitable representation.

The Case for Demographic Performance

• A more balanced approach involves incorporating Demographic Performance (DemPer) into seat allocation.
• This method draws from the framework of the Finance Commission, which uses both population size and demographic efficiency in distributing resources.
• Similarly, delimitation can combine population with performance indicators.
• Under this approach, the existing 543 Lok Sabha seats remain unchanged, while additional seats are allocated based on both population and DemPer.
• Two components define DemPer: early achievement of replacement-level fertility (with a 10% weightage) and the rate of fertility decline between 2005 and 2021 (with a 90% weightage).
• This model ensures that all States gain seats, with more populous States receiving higher absolute increases, while protecting the proportional share of better-performing States.
• It maintains the dominance of population as a criterion but introduces fairness by rewarding sustained efforts in population control. 

Federalism and Democratic Equity

• India’s democracy is not only about numerical equality but also about ensuring a fair voice for all States.
• A purely population-based system risks undermining federal stability and creating regional resentment.
• Recognising demographic performance aligns representation with good governance and reinforces incentives for responsible policymaking.
• Importantly, the issue extends beyond a simple north-south divide, as several northern and smaller States have also achieved significant progress in controlling population growth.
• By balancing democratic equality with federal fairness, the delimitation process can enhance the legitimacy of representation while preserving national unity.

Determining the Size of the Lok Sabha

• Another key consideration is the size of the Lok Sabha. In 1971, each Member of Parliament represented around 10–11 lakh people.
• With India’s population now exceeding 1.4 billion, expanding the number of seats is necessary to maintain effective representation.
• However, an excessively large legislature may weaken the quality of debate and decision-making.
• A cap of around 700 seats offers a practical compromise, ensuring adequate representation while preserving the efficiency and deliberative capacity of Parliament.

Conclusion

• The forthcoming delimitation exercise represents a critical moment for India’s democracy.
• While population-based representation remains essential, it must be complemented by considerations of demographic performance.
• Integrating DemPer into seat allocation provides a balanced approach that rewards population control efforts, safeguards equitable representation, and strengthens the foundations of cooperative federalism.
• Such a framework ensures that democracy reflects not only numbers but also fairness, promoting both national unity and institutional stability in an increasingly diverse and populous nation.

Context

• Elections in India are a regular democratic exercise shaped by constitutional timelines and administrative planning.
• However, recent Assembly elections in Assam, Kerala, Puducherry, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal stand out due to the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls and heightened political tensions between State governments and the Centre.
• These elections reflect both the sophistication and the strain within India’s democratic framework.

The Scale and Logistical Brilliance of Elections

• Conducting elections across 2.19 lakh polling stations for a vast electorate of 17.4 crore voters is an extraordinary administrative effort.
• Polling teams traverse remote terrain, forests, hills, and riverine regions to ensure inclusive participation, even for a handful of voters.
• This reflects a deep commitment to universal franchise and electoral access.
• Over 25 lakh officials, including security personnel, micro-observers, and administrative staff, are deployed.
• Legal provisions ensure their allegiance to the Election Commission of India, reinforcing institutional neutrality.
• The appointment of central observers and reshuffling of officials aim to ensure free and fair elections, though such steps sometimes trigger political friction.
• A significant development is the reduction in multi-phase polling, particularly in politically sensitive regions.
• In West Bengal, polling has been reduced from eight phases in 2021 to two phases, indicating improved election management and stronger security coordination.

The Persistent ‘Four M’ Challenges

• Indian elections continue to face the four Ms: Money power, Muscle power, Misinformation, and MCC violations.
• While electronic voting machines and strong security have reduced overt coercion, other challenges have intensified.
• The role of electoral inducements, cash, gifts, and welfare promises, remains deeply embedded in political competition.
• Seizures of illicit materials worth thousands of crores highlight the scale of this issue.
• Freebies, cash transfers, and fiscally questionable promises often distort voter choice and undermine electoral integrity.
• Misinformation, including fake news and deepfakes, has become a critical concern in the digital era. Despite regulatory efforts such as pre-certification of advertisements and monitoring of campaign content, enforcement remains uneven.
• The rapid spread of misleading narratives challenges the ability of voters to make informed decisions.
• Violations of the Model Code of Conduct (MCC), especially appeals based on caste, religion, and ethnicity, continue to threaten social harmony.
• In diverse regions like Kerala and politically polarised areas like West Bengal, such tactics can intensify divisions. Balancing free speech with necessary regulation remains a complex issue.

Technological and Institutional Innovations

• To address these challenges, the Election Commission of India has introduced measures aimed at enhancing transparency, accountability, and voter participation.
• Initiatives such as live webcasting, stricter monitoring of campaign expenditure, and improved media regulation aim to curb malpractice.
• Citizen-centric reforms have strengthened engagement. The SVEEP programme has improved voter awareness, while innovations like home voting for senior citizens and persons with disabilities ensure inclusive democracy.
• Additional measures such as better-designed voting interfaces and secure polling environments enhance voter convenience.
• The SIR process has improved the accuracy of electoral rolls by removing ineligible entries, contributing to higher voter turnout, which traditionally ranges between 70% and 80%.
• These steps collectively strengthen democratic participation and trust in the system.

The Ethical Responsibility of the Voter

• The integrity of elections ultimately depends on the civic responsibility of voters. Citizens must resist inducements, reject misinformation, and exercise independent judgment.
• Voting is not merely a procedural act but a moral obligation tied to the values of the Constitution of India.
• Allowing false narratives, divisive rhetoric, or material incentives to influence decisions weakens democracy.
• Strengthening civic awareness and encouraging critical thinking are essential to preserving the sanctity of elections.
• An informed electorate acts as the strongest safeguard against manipulation and corruption.

Conclusion

• Elections in India embody a remarkable blend of scale, innovation, and democratic commitment.
• Despite challenges posed by money power, misinformation, and political polarisation, continuous reforms and institutional vigilance sustain the credibility of the process.
• The role of the Election Commission of India remains central, but the ultimate success of elections lies in the hands of responsible citizens.
• Each election is not just a political contest but a reaffirmation of democratic values, electoral integrity, and the collective will of the people.

About Solar Radio Burst:

• It is defined as an intense solar radio emission associated with solar flares.
• Origin: These are observed in radio wavelengths most frequently during solar transients, such as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and flares.
• SRBs are direct signatures of accelerated electrons in the solar atmosphere.
• These are observed across a wide range of wavelengths, from millimetres to kilometres, corresponding to frequencies from the GHz to the kHz range.
  • Observations at short wavelengths correspond to distances close to the solar surface, while those at long wavelengths correspond to the large distances from the Sun.
• Types: Considering the morphological characteristics, five main categories of solar radio bursts can be distinguished: Type I, Type II, Type III, Type IV, and Type V.
• Impacts:
  • These solar transients have a direct impact on the near-Earth atmosphere.
  • It can interfere with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) signals by reducing signal-to-noise ratio and causing loss of lock.