Context:

India transformed global healthcare by making generic drugs affordable. Experts argue that the next frontier for India is to make rare-disease drugs accessible.

With a streamlined regulatory pathway and government procurement, India could build a globally competitive rare-disease pharmaceutical sector.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Understanding the Scale of the Problem
• How Other Countries Solved This: The Orphan Drug Act?
• India's Current Support System — and Its Limits
• The Two Core Challenges in Drug Development
• India's Manufacturing Strength
• What the Government Should Do?

Understanding the Scale of the Problem

• Each rare disease affects very few people, but collectively the numbers are staggering.
• There are around 8,000 rare diseases worldwide, cumulatively affecting hundreds of millions of people.
• In India, 1,004 rare genetic disorders have been reported so far.
• Because patient numbers for any single disease are tiny, pharmaceutical interest has historically been limited — hence the term "orphan drugs."

How Other Countries Solved This: The Orphan Drug Act?

• To overcome industry hesitancy, several governments introduced incentives.
• The US Orphan Drug Act (1983) offered tax incentives, seven years of market exclusivity, grants, and regulatory fee waivers.
• Impact: Before the Act, only 38 relevant drugs had been approved in the US. By 2022, this rose to 1,122 approvals.
• Japan, Australia, and the European Union later adopted similar legislation.
• The catch: Because markets remain small, companies set very high prices. A year's treatment can cost $100,000 (₹1 crore) or more — putting it out of reach without insurance or government support.

India's Current Support System — and Its Limits

• The Indian government supports rare disease patients with up to ₹50 lakh total for treatment.
• This is often insufficient to cover even a year's costs, forcing patients toward crowdfunding.
• Example: In mid-2025, ₹9 crore was crowdfunded for gene therapy for a 16-month-old child in Kolkata.
• Nearly 4,000 children are listed on a Government of India crowdfunding platform, with cumulative annual treatment costs exceeding ₹9,000 crore.
• Existing drugs cover only about 5% of rare diseases — most patients have no suitable drug at all, even at high cost.

The Two Core Challenges in Drug Development

• Finding a patient cohort large enough for clinical trials.
• Determining trial endpoints — what "success" means for a very rare condition.
• Beyond approval, affordable, high-quality small-scale manufacturing and distribution remain major hurdles.

India's Advantage: A Natural Trial Ground

• India's demographics make it uniquely suited for rare-disease research.
• With a population exceeding 1.4 billion, India has large absolute numbers of patients even for very rare conditions.
• High rates of endogamy in certain communities raise disease prevalence further. For instance, beta-thalassemia prevalence is 10.5% in specific ethnic groups, versus 3.7% in India's general population (2023 review).
• The Indian diaspora's gene pool carries unique mutations across ethnicities, adding further research value.
• The Gap
  • Indian patients rarely participate in international orphan-drug trials, despite this potential.
  • Analysts suggest government-fostered collaboration between foreign companies and local organisations — similar to India's approach in chip manufacturing — and inviting multinational firms to set up rare-disease drug-development centres with patient groups.

A Benefit-Sharing Model for Pricing

• Experts propose a key principle: Indian patients participating in drug development should be beneficiaries of the resulting drugs, not just data sources.
• Proposal: India should be allowed to decide the price of drugs sold domestically or in the Global South, while companies remain free to set prices elsewhere.
• This echoes the benefit-sharing concept discussed under the WHO's Pandemic Agreement, where pathogen information shared globally must lead to fair, equitable access to resulting drugs and vaccines.
• US and Chinese firms are already racing on rare-disease drugs, with China leveraging patient access and low-cost manufacturing. Western companies may find India an attractive collaboration partner too.

India's Manufacturing Strength

• India is already the "pharmacy of the world" for generics.
  • India fills 47% of US generic prescriptions.
  • It has the largest number of US-regulator-approved manufacturing sites outside the US.
  • Indian firms supply 15% of all biosimilars sold in the US.
  • Indian facilities now produce CAR-T therapy — a personalised cancer treatment — to international standards.
• Regulatory shortcut: Under Rule 101 of the New Drugs and Clinical Trials Rules, 2019, the CDSCO allows drugs already approved in six specified countries (including the US and UK) to skip a fresh Indian clinical trial before regulatory approval.
• This is a strong incentive for manufacturing such drugs locally — though the authors call for greater transparency and guidance documents to ease the application process.

What the Government Should Do?

• Analysts propose a policy package modelled on Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) schemes:
  • Tax incentives for investing in orphan drug manufacturing.
  • Production-linked incentives for approved orphan drugs.
  • Support for technology transfer with national laboratories.
  • Advance Market Commitments (AMCs) — government pre-committing to buy a certain output at a set price.
  • Distribution through Centres of Excellence on Rare Diseases, the Central Government Health Scheme, and Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Jan Aushadhi Kendras.
  • Incentives for exporting to low- and middle-income countries.
• The Underlying Philosophy: The goal shouldn't be simply subsidising companies, but de-risking initial investment enough to make orphan drug manufacturing commercially viable on its own.

Why in the News?

• Ladakh’s demand for Sixth Schedule status has been accompanied by a proposal to create a directly elected legislative body through a new constitutional provision, Article 371-K.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About Ladakh’s Governance (Context, 6^th Schedule, Ladakh’s Demands, Proposed Model, Balancing Autonomy & Administration)

Ladakh’s Governance Context

• Ladakh became a Union Territory without a Legislative Assembly under the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019.
• The change generated concerns among local groups regarding protection of the region’s culture, language, traditions, customary practices and land rights, along with demands for greater political representation.
• The Sixth Schedule emerged as a major demand because it provides constitutionally recognised mechanisms for autonomous local governance, particularly in areas with significant tribal populations.
• The current debate therefore concerns how Ladakh can receive greater local participation and institutional protection while retaining its status as a Union Territory.

About the Sixth Schedule

• The Sixth Schedule is implemented through Articles 244(2) and 275(1) of the Constitution and currently applies to specified tribal areas in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.
• It provides for Autonomous District Councils with substantial powers over local governance.
• A district council can have a maximum of 30 members, with the institutional structure designed to provide greater autonomy to communities in designated areas.
• The historical basis of the Sixth Schedule lies partly in the administrative treatment of several tribal areas during British rule. Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram subsequently became separate States while retaining Sixth Schedule protections in specified areas.
• The underlying objective is to provide institutional mechanisms through which distinct tribal communities can participate in governing matters affecting their social, cultural and economic interests.

Why Has Ladakh Demanded Sixth Schedule Status?

• Ladakh has a distinctive ethnic, cultural and geographical character, which has contributed to demands for stronger constitutional safeguards.
• The major concerns include:
  • Protection of local languages, traditions and customary practices.
  • Safeguarding local land rights against excessive acquisition by outsiders.
  • Greater political representation for the local population.
  • Greater participation in decisions affecting development and governance.
• The demand also reflects the broader constitutional objective of accommodating India's diverse social and cultural communities within democratic institutions.

Proposed Article 371-K

• Instead of extending Sixth Schedule provisions to Ladakh, the Central Government has proposed inserting Article 371-K into Part XXI of the Constitution, which deals with temporary, transitional and special provisions.
• The proposed framework seeks to create a directly elected legislative authority for Ladakh while maintaining the Union Territory's existing constitutional position.
• The proposed institution could potentially be placed above the existing Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Councils (LAHDCs) while retaining panchayats and other district-level institutions.
• The objective is to establish a governance structure that combines local democratic participation with Union-level administration.

Key Questions Under the Proposed Model

• Role of the Lieutenant Governor
  • The precise relationship between the proposed legislative authority and the Lieutenant Governor would need to be defined, particularly regarding executive and administrative powers.
• Financial Autonomy
  • The extent of financial powers available to the proposed authority is another important issue. This includes questions concerning taxation, expenditure and control over financial resources.
• Relationship with Existing Institutions
  • The proposed body would have to function alongside the LAHDCs, panchayats and district-level institutions. Clear allocation of functions would be necessary to avoid overlapping jurisdictions.
• National Security
  • Ladakh's strategic geographical location makes national security an important consideration in designing its governance framework. The proposed model therefore seeks to balance local autonomy with the Union's responsibilities relating to territorial security.

Is Special Constitutional Status for a UT Possible?

• Providing a special governance arrangement to a Union Territory is constitutionally possible.
• India's constitutional framework does not follow a completely uniform model for every territorial unit.
• Parliament has previously created special arrangements for Union Territories, including the National Capital Territory of Delhi under Articles 239AA and 239AB.
• Therefore, a special constitutional provision for Ladakh would represent another example of differentiated governance within India's federal structure.

Balancing Local Autonomy and National Administration

• The Ladakh debate illustrates an important feature of Indian federalism: constitutional governance can accommodate different institutional arrangements for different territories.
• The challenge is to create sufficient space for local democratic participation and protection of cultural interests while maintaining administrative coordination and national responsibilities.
• A directly elected legislative authority under a special constitutional provision could potentially provide a framework for this balance, although its effectiveness would depend on the precise distribution of legislative, administrative and financial powers.

Context:

• India's pursuit of Atmanirbhar Bharat in defence aims to reduce dependence on foreign weapons and strengthen strategic autonomy. However, complete self-reliance can be prohibitively expensive.
• The challenge is to balance indigenous technological capabilities with cost-effectiveness, timely procurement and integration into global defence supply chains.

India's Defence Indigenisation Drive:

• The government has promoted defence self-reliance through initiatives such as Make in India (2014), Vocal for Local (2020) and Atmanirbhar Bharat (2020).
• Indigenous defence capabilities are considered essential for reducing dependence on foreign suppliers, strengthening strategic autonomy and protecting national security.
• Recently, the Defence Minister of India also reiterated the vision of designing, developing and manufacturing in India - a country which is world’s 5th-largest defence spender, and the 2nd-largest importer of weaponry after war-torn Ukraine.
• India's indigenous defence and aerospace production increased from ₹46,000 crore in 2014 to ₹1.78 lakh crore in 2025–26.
• Defence exports also rose significantly, from ₹600 crore in 2014 to ₹38,434 crore in 2024–25. The government has set a target of ₹50,000 crore in defence exports by 2028–29.

The Economic Cost of Complete Self-Reliance:

• Defence acquisition follows a broad cost hierarchy -
  • Leasing: Generally the most cost-effective and timely option when equipment is required for a limited period.
  • Direct procurement: Buying an existing platform is generally more expensive than leasing it.
  • Technology transfer: Acquiring manufacturing technology and establishing domestic production facilities involves higher costs.
  • Indigenous development: Designing, developing, testing and manufacturing an entire platform is generally the most expensive approach.
• Thus, complete self-reliance may impose substantial financial and technological costs, particularly when domestic alternatives are still under development.

Limitations of India's Defence Indigenisation:

• Several indigenous platforms, including the Tejas fighter, naval warships and tactical missile systems, continue to depend on imported components, subsystems and materials.
• In some cases, overseas inputs account for nearly 40% of a platform's cost.
• Developing every component domestically can lead to duplication of effort, increased expenditure and delays.
• Even technologically advanced defence economies rely on international suppliers for specialised components.
• For example, a significant proportion of the world's combat aircraft use ejection seats manufactured by British company Martin-Baker.
• Even Lockheed Martin’s F-35 Lightning II and China’s F-7 Guizhou, went for Martin-Baker.
• This demonstrates that strategic self-reliance does not necessarily require complete technological autarky.

Strategic Technologies - The Core of Atmanirbharta:

• India should prioritise technologies that are critical to operational superiority and national security rather than attempting to indigenise every component.
• The Tejas fighter programme illustrates this approach.
  • The aircraft's manoeuvrability depends on its unstable aerodynamic design.
  • This requires an advanced digital flight control computer and quadruplex fly-by-wire software.
  • India successfully developed this critical technology for the Tejas Mk1.
  • The technology is being upgraded for the Tejas Mk2 and the Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA).
• Developing such critical technologies enables India to retain control over essential capabilities while sourcing non-critical components from global suppliers.

Project Management - The Key to Cost-Effective Self-Reliance:

• Successful defence indigenisation requires strong project management and technological prioritisation.
• Key requirements include -
  • Strategic prioritisation: Identifying technologies essential for national security and operational superiority.
  • Resource optimisation: Combining domestic capabilities with international technological expertise.
  • Time-bound development: Establishing realistic deadlines and preventing prolonged delays.
  • Accountability: Periodically reviewing projects and discontinuing those that are technologically or financially unviable.
• Efficient project management can prevent cost overruns and ensure that indigenous development delivers tangible strategic benefits.

Global Supply Chains and Strategic Autonomy:

• Dependence on foreign suppliers can expose India to export restrictions, sanctions and political pressure. However, participation in global defence supply chains can also reduce such vulnerabilities.
• When domestic industries become important suppliers to international original equipment manufacturers (OEMs), foreign companies also become dependent on Indian components.
• This creates mutual interdependence, potentially discouraging arbitrary supply disruptions. However, defence self-reliance alone cannot guarantee strategic autonomy.
• India's continued dependence on imported commodities, particularly crude oil, highlights the broader economic vulnerabilities that influence national security.

Way Forward:

• Adopt selective self-reliance, prioritising critical technologies over complete indigenisation.
• Promote domestic research and development while leveraging international partnerships.
• Strengthen project management, technological assessment and accountability.
• Integrate Indian defence industries into global supply chains to enhance exports and create mutual dependencies.
• Balance indigenous production with leasing and imports wherever they are more economical and operationally necessary.

Conclusion:

• Atmanirbhar Bharat should be viewed as a strategy for achieving technological sovereignty and strategic autonomy, rather than complete economic or technological isolation.
• India's success will depend on identifying critical defence capabilities, managing development costs and building a competitive domestic defence industry integrated with global supply chains.

Context

• India is no longer an agriculture-dominated economy, yet it remains deeply dependent on agriculture for employment and rural livelihoods.
• Agriculture contributes about 15–18% of GDP while supporting nearly 46% of the workforce, creating a structural imbalance between its economic contribution and employment dependence.
• Small holdings, water scarcity, climate change, rising input costs and weak market linkages continue to undermine farm incomes.
• The birth centenary of M.S. Swaminathan offers an opportunity to revisit the National Commission on Farmers (NCF) and adapt its vision to contemporary challenges.

The Structural Challenges of Indian Agriculture

• Small and Fragmented Landholdings
  • Around 86% of farmers own less than two hectares, limiting economies of scale, mechanisation, diversification and technological adoption.
  • Fragmented holdings also weaken farmers’ bargaining power in agricultural markets.
• Water Stress and Ecological Vulnerability
  • Nearly half of cultivated land remains dependent on unpredictable rainfall, increasing exposure to droughts and erratic monsoons.
  • Conversely, intensive irrigation has caused groundwater depletion in several regions.
  • Conflicts such as the Cauvery dispute demonstrate the growing competition for finite water resources.
• Climate Change and Rising Costs
  • Climate change is intensifying agricultural vulnerability through heat waves, floods, droughts and irregular rainfall.
  • Simultaneously, rising prices of seeds, fertilisers, pesticides and fuel are squeezing already narrow farm margins.
• Weak Position in the Value Chain
  • Farmers often receive only a limited share of consumer prices because of inadequate storage, processing facilities, fragmented supply chains and multiple intermediaries.
  • Consequently, increased production does not automatically translate into higher farm incomes.

What the NCF Got Right?

• Focus on Agricultural Distress
  • The NCF’s central insight was that agricultural distress is fundamentally an income and livelihood problem rather than merely a productivity problem.
  • Agricultural policy should therefore be assessed by improvements in farmers’ economic well-being rather than simply higher yields.
  • The Commission emphasised timely access to water, institutional credit, technology, livestock, fisheries and other productive resources.
  • Stronger links between research institutions and farmers were also necessary to ensure that innovation addressed practical agricultural needs.
• Ecological Sustainability
  • The NCF recognised that higher productivity cannot come at the expense of soil health, water security and natural-resource conservation.
  • Efficient irrigation and sustainable farming practices therefore need to form an integral part of agricultural policy.
• Strengthening Farmers’ Bargaining Power
  • The Commission advocated district-level agricultural infrastructure, direct marketing and improved storage, grading, packaging, processing and transportation.
  • These measures could increase farmers’ share in agricultural value chains.
  • Its vision extended beyond cultivation to livelihood security through agriculture, allied activities, rural enterprises and non-farm employment.
  • This approach also broadly converged with the economic thinking associated with Chaudhary Charan Singh, particularly the emphasis on small farmers, remunerative agriculture and rural purchasing power.
• From Production to Farmer Income
  • Several NCF recommendations have been incorporated into different schemes, but its integrated framework for farmer income, risk reduction, markets and sustainability remains incomplete.
  • Agricultural policy should therefore measure net farm income per household, alongside conventional productivity indicators.
  • A shift from an exclusively MSP-centric approach to comprehensive income-risk management is necessary.
  • MSP should be complemented by crop insurance, income support, irrigation, affordable credit, storage, processing and market linkages.

Agriculture and Global Markets

• India cannot permanently insulate agriculture from global markets, but small farmers should not be exposed to international competition without adequate safeguards.
• Free Trade Agreements can create export opportunities, while import competition and global price volatility can create risks.
• The appropriate approach is a combination of farmer aggregation, productivity enhancement, value addition, risk management, remunerative prices and carefully designed trade safeguards.
• Strong Farmer Producer Organisations and cooperatives can improve bargaining power and enable farmers to participate more effectively in domestic and international value chains.

The Way Forward: Updating the NCF Vision

• The agricultural landscape has changed significantly since the NCF’s recommendations, with climate stress, migration, technological transformation and expanding global value chains creating new challenges.
• The objective should not be to reproduce the NCF mechanically but to update its fundamental vision.
• Farmers need economic security, ecological sustainability and stronger market participation.
• Making the NCF a constitutional body could provide institutional continuity and encourage coordinated, long-term agricultural policymaking.

Conclusion

• India’s agricultural challenge is no longer simply to produce more food but to ensure secure incomes, sustainable livelihoods and dignified economic opportunities for farming communities.
• The NCF anticipated many of these concerns by placing farmer welfare at the centre of agricultural policy.
• An integrated farmer-income architecture linking production with water, technology, credit, insurance, infrastructure, processing and markets can transform Indian agriculture.
• Revisiting the NCF’s vision can help India move from an output-oriented agricultural system towards one centred on farmer prosperity, resilience and sustainable rural transformation.

Context

• Food loss and waste are major global challenges with far-reaching consequences for food security, nutrition, climate change, natural resources and economic productivity.
• India produces enough food to feed its population of 1.4 billion, yet substantial quantities are lost across the agrifood value chain.
• Reducing these losses can generate a triple win: improving food security and nutrition, reducing environmental pressures and emissions, and enhancing incomes and productivity.
• The International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste on September 29 underlines the importance of addressing this issue.

India’s Evidence Base, a Global First

• India has developed an important foundation for tackling food loss through three nationally representative post-harvest loss surveys, making it the only country to have conducted such a sustained exercise.
• The Ministry of Food Processing Industries conducted surveys during 2005-07, 2012-14 and 2020-22, covering an increasing number of commodities from farm to retail. A fourth survey is now under way.
• This evidence supports India's reporting under the Food Loss Index of the Sustainable Development Goals and helps identify areas requiring intervention.
• However, significant data gaps remain. Existing assessments focus mainly on farm and supply-chain losses, while systematic information on food waste in households, retail, hotels and restaurants remains limited.
• Better data is essential for identifying loss hotspots, directing investment and measuring policy outcomes. 

From Measurement to Action

• Better storage, drying, cooling, moisture management and processing can substantially reduce post-harvest losses.
• Digital technologies, particularly traceability systems, can improve the movement and management of food throughout supply chains.
• Food loss and waste should be integrated into agricultural planning, food-processing strategies, climate action and investment decisions.
• Financial resources must target technologies and infrastructure with high potential impact while ensuring that solutions remain affordable and accessible to small farmers, producer organisations and small businesses.
• A circular-economy approach can further enhance resource efficiency.
• Surplus edible food can be redistributed, while unavoidable organic residues can be converted into compost, biogas and energy, reducing environmental damage and creating additional economic value. 

Wholesale Markets, Overlooked Opportunity

• Assessments by the FAO and COSAMB indicate that major wholesale markets can generate up to 100 tonnes of organic waste per day.
• Nationally, this amounts to an estimated 3.5 million tonnes annually, while large quantities of urban organic waste end up in landfills.
• Treating this waste as a resource rather than a liability can reduce emissions and create economic opportunities.
• Its effective utilisation could potentially offset approximately 3.3 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions annually.
• A 50-tonne-per-day bio-CNG plant in Surat, Gujarat, demonstrates how market waste can be converted into useful energy.
• The project reportedly reduces methane-related emissions by approximately 7,500 tonnes annually.
• Such models should be adapted to local commodity mixes, infrastructure and market conditions.
• Municipalities and market committees can strengthen waste segregation, collection and treatment, while developing markets for compost, biogas and other recovered materials.

Investment and innovation

• India must move from isolated interventions towards a coordinated national approach with financing at its core.
• Partnerships involving the FAO and SIDBI can connect food-loss hotspots with climate-resilient technologies, including improved drying, moisture control, energy-efficient cooling and storage.
• Access to finance is especially important for small and medium enterprises, enabling them to adopt technologies that reduce losses and improve productivity.
• Urban areas also require systematic solutions. A practical Package of Practices for urban food-loss and waste management can enable municipalities to measure, prevent, reduce, redistribute and valorise waste across households, wholesale markets, retail and food-service establishments.

Key Challenges

• Despite significant progress, several challenges require attention:
  • Inadequate data on consumer-level and urban food waste.
  • Insufficient storage and cold-chain infrastructure.
  • Limited access to finance and modern technologies among small producers and enterprises.
  • Weak segregation and treatment of organic waste.
  • Fragmented interventions across agricultural, urban and climate policies.
  • Limited markets for compost, biogas and other recovered resources.
• Addressing these challenges requires coordinated action among governments, farmers, businesses, financial institutions, municipalities and research organisations. 

The Way Forward

• India now has data, technology and viable models to substantially reduce food loss and waste.
• The way forward should focus on:
  • Closing data gaps across the entire food system.
  • Expanding storage, cooling, drying and processing infrastructure.
  • Providing affordable finance and technology to farmers and small businesses.
  • Strengthening digital traceability and supply-chain management.
  • Promoting food redistribution and circular-economy solutions.
  • Developing efficient systems for segregating and treating organic waste.
  • Integrating food-loss reduction into agricultural, food-processing, urban and climate policies.

Conclusion

• Food loss and waste should not be viewed merely as an agricultural or waste-management problem.
• They represent a broader challenge involving food security, environmental sustainability, climate action and economic efficiency.
• India has already established a strong evidence base and demonstrated that technological and circular solutions are viable.
• The priority now is to scale these initiatives through better data, targeted investment, modern infrastructure, accessible finance and coordinated policymaking.
• By transforming wasted food and organic residues into productive resources, India can strengthen food security, conserve natural resources, reduce emissions and build a more resilient, efficient and sustainable agrifood system.

About Kaladi:

• Known as Kalari cheese or the “mozzarella of the Himalayas”, it is a traditional dairy product originated from the Ramnagar area, Udhampur district of Jammu & Kashmir.
• The local delicacy is traditionally made by Gujjar shepherds in the mountains of Kashmir.
• It is a traditionally ripened cheese made from cow’s or goat’s milk.
• Kalari was developed to preserve excess milk during the summer months, when the heat would make it difficult to store fresh milk.
• It received the Geographical Indication (GI) tag in 2023.

About Dakhla Oasis:

• It is a desert oasis located west of the Nile River, between Cairo and Luxor in Egypt.
• It is part of the Western Desert, which covers two-thirds of the land area of the country.
• It is known for its rich history and stunning landscapes.
• Nomadic hunter-gatherers first settled in Dakhla Oasis around 12,000 years ago.
• It has long been a crossroads between different parts of North Africa.
  • Ancient routes passing through the region connected communities travelling between Egypt, the Sahara, and Libya, leaving behind evidence of repeated human activity.
• Among the most valuable remains are thousands of petroglyphs carved into exposed rock surfaces.
  • Some depict animals that once lived in a wetter Sahara, while others show people, hunting scenes, and symbols connected to different periods of settlement.
• It was only connected to the outside world by a road built in the 80s, the so-called Great Desert Loop.
• The soil's exceptional fertility makes Dakhla famous. Local farmers grow dates, olives, and other crops that are the foundations of the region's agriculture.
• The oasis also features therapeutic hot springs like Bir Tarfawi and Bir Al-Gebel.
• Dakhla Oasis is home to several important sites, including Mut, Al-Qasr village, and the Dakhla Oasis Heritage Museum.

What is an Oasis?

• An oasis is an area made fertile by a source of freshwater in an otherwise dry and arid region.
• Oases (more than one oasis) are irrigated by natural springs or other underground water sources.
• They vary in size from a cluster of date palms around a well or a spring to a city and its irrigated cropland.
• Dates, cotton, olives, figs, citrus fruits, wheat, and corn (maize) are common oasis crops.
• Underground water sources called aquifers supply most oases.
• In some cases, a natural spring brings the underground water to the surface. At other oases, manmade wells tap the aquifer.

About Modhera Sun Temple:

• It is a Hindu temple dedicated to the solar deity Surya located at Modhera village of the Mehsana district, Gujarat.
• It is situated on the bank of the river Pushpavati.
• It was built after 1026-27 CE during the reign of King Bhima I of the Chaulukya dynasty.
• No worship is offered now and is a protected monument maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
• It entered the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in the year 2014.
• Architecture:
  • The temple complex is built in Maru-Gurjara style (Chaulukya style).
  • The temple complex has three components: Gudhamandapa, the shrine hall; Sabhamandapa, the assembly hall; and Kunda, the reservoir.
  • Each part is aligned along an east-west axis, reinforcing the temple’s connection to the sun’s movement.
  • The halls have intricately carved exterior and pillars.
  • Sabha Mandap standing on 52 pillars, depicting the 52 weeks in a year. The intricate carvings on the pillars depict scenes from ancient Indian epics Ramayana, Mahabharata and scenes from the life of Lord Krishna.
  • The reservoir has steps to reach the bottom and numerous small shrines.
  • On equinoxes, with the perfect planning and precision of the architecture, sun rays enter the main sanctum.
  • In those days light was used to further reflect to other idols from the correctly placed diamond on the head of Sun God.
  • The exterior walls are engraved with beautiful intricate carvings.

About Arteries:

• Arteries are the blood vessels that bring oxygen-rich blood from heart to all of the body’s cells.
• Arteries make up a major part of the circulatory system, with the veins and heart being the other main components.
• They play a crucial role in distributing oxygen, nutrients, and hormones throughout the body.
• The heart pumps oxygen-rich blood into the biggest artery in the body, the aorta.
• This branches off into parts that feed smaller and smaller arteries, eventually reaching the entire body.
• Arteries keep the body alive and healthy by delivering what the cells and tissues need.
• Roughly 10% of the body’s blood is in the arteries at any point in time.
• The arteries have three layers:
  • Tunica intima, or inner layer: Has tissue with elastic fiber.
  • Tunica media, or middle layer: This is mostly smooth muscle that lets arteries get tighter or more open as needed.
  • Tunica externa, or outer layer: Interacts with other tissues, including nerves that send commands to pull in or expand.
• The two types of arteries are:
  • Elastic: Have more elastic tissue than muscular arteries and are located close to the heart. Examples: Aorta and pulmonary artery.
  • Muscular: Have more smooth muscle than elastic arteries. Examples: Femoral, radial, and brachial arteries.
• Specific arteries provide blood to organs or certain parts of the body, such as:
  • Coronary arteries: Heart.
  • Carotid arteries: Brain, head, face and neck.
  • Vertebral arteries: Brain and spine.
  • Iliac arteries: Pelvis.
  • Femoral artery: Legs.
  • Subclavian arteries: Head, neck, and arms.
  • Celiac and mesenteric arteries: Digestive system.
• Conditions that can harm your arteries include:
  • Atherosclerosis, a condition in which plaque builds up inside arteries.
    • Over time, plaque hardens and causes arteries to narrow.
    • That limits the flow of oxygen-rich blood to the body.
  • Aneurysm (a stretch or bulge in an artery that can break open).
  • Blood clot.
  • Coronary artery disease (atherosclerosis in your coronary arteries).
  • Carotid artery disease (atherosclerosis in your carotid artery).
  • High blood pressure.
  • High cholesterol.
  • Peripheral artery disease (PAD): A common condition in which narrowed arteries reduce blood flow to the arms or legs.

How are arteries different from veins?

• Arteries:
  • Take oxygen-rich blood away from heart and distribute it to whole body.
  • Have strong, muscular walls that can handle the high pressure of blood the heart pumps out with each heartbeat.
• Veins:
  • Bring blood back to the heart after body’s cells and tissues have taken the oxygen out of it. This is known as oxygen-poor blood or deoxygenated blood.
  • Have thinner walls because the pressure inside them isn’t as high as it is in arteries.
  • Have valves inside them to keep blood from moving in the wrong direction.

About Tetrataenium manipurense:

• It is a new plant species from Manipur.
• Locally known as 'Singjang-kumol' or 'Manshang-nakuppi', the species has been named Tetrataenium manipurense after the state of Manipur.
• It is a local culinary herb in Manipur.
• Despite its long-standing popularity in traditional Manipuri cuisine, the plant previously lacked official recognition in global scientific records.
• It has long, slender, grass-like green leaflets and an exceptionally long cylindrical rootstock.
• The plant also produces stalks that bear small, oblong-oval fruits.
• For generations, communities have harvested its aerial shoots, flowers, and basal leaves to season traditional dishes.
• Local markets in Manipur have been trading this wild aromatic vegetable for generations, where it is typically sold in bundles of fresh green sprigs.
• It is provisionally categorised as Least Concern (LC) under the IUCN Red List criteria.