Why in the News?

• The World Bank’s October 2026 Poverty and Equity Brief reported a significant decline in India's extreme poverty rate to 2.6% in 2023, from 27.1% in 2011, while highlighting persistent wage disparities and regional concentration of poverty.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Poverty & Its Measurement (Concept, PPP, India’s Progress in Poverty Reduction, Multidimensional Poverty, Factors, Challenges, etc.)

Understanding Poverty and Its Measurement

• Poverty is a multidimensional development challenge involving inadequate income, limited access to essential services and insufficient opportunities for a dignified standard of living. It is generally assessed through two broad approaches:
  • Monetary poverty: Measures whether individuals or households have sufficient income or consumption expenditure to meet a defined poverty threshold.
  • Multidimensional poverty: Assesses deprivation across indicators such as health, education and living standards.
• The World Bank uses international poverty lines expressed in purchasing power parity (PPP) terms to compare poverty across countries.

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)

• PPP measures the relative purchasing power of currencies by accounting for differences in the prices of goods and services across countries.
• It helps compare living standards by estimating how much of a common basket of goods and services can be purchased in different economies.
• The World Bank's revised international poverty lines include:

                                            Image Caption: WB’s Poverty Lines

• These thresholds are expressed in 2021 PPP terms. They should not be directly converted using prevailing market exchange rates.

India's Progress in Poverty Reduction

• According to the World Bank's October 2026 Poverty and Equity Brief, India has recorded one of the fastest reductions in poverty globally over the past decade.
• Between 2011 and 2023, the proportion of India's population living below the lower-middle-income poverty line of $4.20 per day declined from 57.7% to 16.1%. This represents an estimated 496 million people moving above that poverty threshold.
• Extreme poverty also declined substantially, from 27.1% in 2011 to 2.6% in 2023.

                                 Image Caption: Reduction in Poverty in India

• The reduction in extreme poverty between 2022-23 and 2023 indicates that the rate was approximately halved over the period.

Multidimensional Poverty Reduction

• India has also made progress in reducing non-monetary deprivation.
• The World Bank's brief highlighted the following trends:

• India's Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI), based on the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI) methodology, declined from 53.8% in 2005-06 to 16.4% in 2019-21.
• The World Bank's MPI measure for India stood at 15.5% in 2022-23.

• These indicators suggest improvements extending beyond household consumption and income.

Factors Behind Poverty Reduction

• The World Bank identified multiple factors contributing to India's progress:
  • Strong consumption growth: Rising household consumption has contributed to improvements in living standards.
  • Employment expansion: Employment increased by approximately 13.4 crore people between 2017 and 2023, nearly twice the growth in the working-age population.
  • Women's workforce participation: Much of the employment increase was driven by rural women entering paid work, increasing the number of earners within households.
  • Social transfers: Expanded government support, including food subsidies, contributed to improved household welfare.

Persistent Challenges: Inequality and Regional Concentration

• Despite substantial progress, the World Bank identified structural challenges that could affect the sustainability and inclusiveness of poverty reduction.
• Wage Inequality
  • Wage disparities remain pronounced in India. In 2023, median earnings among the top 10% of workers were approximately 13 times those of the bottom 10%.
  • At the same time, the consumption-based Gini index declined from 28.8 in 2011-12 to 25.5 in 2022-23 and further to 23.0 in 2023.
  • However, the World Bank cautioned that household consumption surveys may not fully capture the consumption of wealthier households and could therefore understate inequality.
• Geographical Concentration of Poverty
  • Poverty is becoming increasingly concentrated geographically. Approximately 57% of India's poor population lives in a contiguous belt stretching from Uttar Pradesh to West Bengal.
  • This concentration means that further poverty reduction will depend substantially on improving economic opportunities and creating productive employment in these States.
• Employment Quality and Youth Unemployment
  • Although employment expanded significantly between 2017 and 2023, the World Bank noted that real earnings remained broadly unchanged, with employment growth concentrated in relatively low-productivity activities.
  • Youth unemployment also increased from 14.6% in the first quarter of FY2025-26 to 15.9% in the corresponding quarter of FY2026-27. The increase was particularly notable among rural young women.
  • These trends highlight the distinction between employment generation and the creation of stable, productive and adequately remunerated jobs.

Future Poverty Projections

• The World Bank expects poverty in India to continue declining, although at a more gradual pace.
• According to its projections, the proportion of the population below the $4.20-per-day lower-middle-income poverty line is expected to decline to 14.2% in 2026 and further to 12.1% by 2028.

Context:

• There is the need to examine the difference between India during the 2004–2014 period, described as the “lost decade”, and the India being built since 2014.
• It argues that the real measure of governance is not political rhetoric or the number of schemes announced, but the tangible improvement in citizens’ lives.
• The central question for India’s young electorate is whether governance creates an environment where success depends on merit, skills and hard work rather than political connections.

Transforming the Citizen-State Relationship:

• From patronage to merit:
  • During 2004–2014, economic opportunities were allegedly influenced by political connections rather than merit. Contracts, credit and capital often favoured influential business groups over deserving entrepreneurs.
  • For example, a 2012 Credit Suisse report highlighted the concentration of bank borrowing among major business groups, while small entrepreneurs struggled to access credit.
  • Good governance must ensure equal opportunity, transparency and merit-based access to resources, reducing the role of patronage.
• Direct benefit transfer (DBT) - Eliminating intermediaries:
  • Earlier, a former Prime Minister acknowledged that only a fraction of welfare expenditure reached intended beneficiaries.
  • The JAM Trinity (Jan Dhan, Aadhaar and Mobile) transformed welfare delivery by enabling direct transfers and reducing intermediary leakages. For example, over ₹53 lakh crore transferred directly to citizens’ bank accounts since 2014.
  • DBT represents a governance reform rather than merely a technological innovation, strengthening transparency, accountability and financial inclusion.

Poverty Reduction and Inclusive Development:

• Multidimensional poverty:
  • According to the NITI Aayog figures, nearly 250 million Indians exited multidimensional poverty over nine years.
  • The multidimensional poverty headcount ratio declined from 29.17% in 2013–14 to 11.28% in 2022–23.
  • This is mainly driven by substantial transfers to farmers, including approximately ₹4.47 lakh crore under direct assistance programmes.
• Significance: Effective governance can create a virtuous cycle of poverty reduction, economic security, dignity and improved human development.

Fiscal Discipline - Welfare versus Capital Formation:

• Welfare expenditure, when financed through unsustainable borrowing, can undermine long-term development.
• Case of Karnataka:
  • Borrowings reportedly increased from ₹90,280 crore to ₹1.04 lakh crore in a year.
  • This increase has been linked to expenditure on guarantee schemes, and capital expenditure has been crowded out.
  • Reduced capital investment can constrain infrastructure development, industrial capacity and employment generation.
• Keralam:
  • A June 2026 White Paper reportedly documented ₹5.07 lakh crore in debt accumulated over a decade.
  • The State was reportedly in RBI overdraft for 84 days during 2025.
  • Capital expenditure stood at 1.3% of GSDP, substantially below the national average.
• Key concern: Excessive revenue expenditure and debt servicing can reduce the fiscal space available for productive investment.

Political Disruption versus Democratic Accountability:

• The right to protest:
  • As peaceful protest and dissent are essential to democracy, citizens must retain the non-negotiable right to question and challenge those in power.
  • However, it distinguishes legitimate dissent from the deliberate disruption of governance for political gains, for example,
    • Repeated disruption of Parliament to prevent legislative proceedings.
    • Blocking highways as a pressure tactic.
    • Creating an artificial appearance of crisis without presenting a credible alternative policy programme.
  • Such practices substitute political noise for substantive debate and weaken institutional functioning.
• Impact on young citizens:
  • This -
    • Creates cynicism and reduces public participation.
    • Encourages the misconception that creating chaos is equivalent to demonstrating governing ability.
    • Weakens democratic accountability by diverting attention from measurable governance outcomes.
  • India's large youth population makes the development of informed political values particularly important for the future of democracy.

Governance and State-Level Development:

• The below state-level examples illustrate the relationship between governance and economic outcomes.
• For example,
  • UP: Transformation from a BIMARU state to a ₹36 lakh crore economy, accompanied by revenue surplus and improved investor confidence.
  • Maharashtra: Leadership in foreign direct investment (FDI), with more than half of India's FDI reportedly received in a single quarter.
  • Karnataka: Rising borrowings and welfare expenditure allegedly constraining capital investment.
  • Keralam: High public debt, fiscal stress and low capital expenditure limiting future investment.
• The broader argument is that good governance should be evaluated through outcomes such as infrastructure, employment, investment, fiscal sustainability and public service delivery.

Governance, Technology and Institutional Accountability:

• Both governance and technology should be designed around citizens rather than those administering the system.
• Effective governance requires -
  • Transparency in public expenditure and decision-making.
  • Accountability for the use of public resources.
  • Efficient delivery of public services.
  • Merit-based access to economic opportunities.
  • Sustainable fiscal management and investment in productive assets.
• The objective is to create institutions that empower citizens rather than make them dependent on political patronage.

Way Forward - Outcome-Oriented Governance:

• Outcome-based budgeting: Link public expenditure with measurable improvements in citizens' welfare.
• Fiscal prudence: Balance welfare commitments with infrastructure creation and long-term investment.
• Participatory governance: Protect dissent while ensuring that democratic institutions remain functional.
• Institutional accountability: Strengthen transparency, social audits and citizen-centric public service delivery.
• Youth engagement: Promote informed political participation based on policies and governance outcomes rather than partisan narratives.

Conclusion:

• The true test of democracy is when governments expand citizens' opportunities, uphold accountability and create sustainable prosperity.
• Good governance must enable citizens to succeed through their abilities rather than political connections.
• India's future depends on choosing institutions that build lasting public assets and leave the next generation better equipped to prosper.

Context

• India-China relations are characterised by managed coexistence, combining diplomatic engagement with persistent border tensions and strategic mistrust.
• Despite being two ancient civilisations, both countries struggle to establish lasting peace.
• Historical grievances, territorial disputes and geopolitical competition undermine mutual confidence.
• However, conflict is neither inevitable nor desirable. Peaceful coexistence, strategic stability and diplomatic dialogue are essential for securing long-term peace in Asia.

An Analysis of Divide and Development Between India and China

• Historical Grievances and Border Disputes
  • The 1962 Sino-Indian War remains a defining moment in bilateral relations.
  • China's military action shattered India's confidence after years of Hindi–Chini Bhai Bhai
  • Territorial disagreements over Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh subsequently deepened mutual suspicion.
  • The 2020 Galwan Valley clash, which killed 20 Indian soldiers, further damaged relations. Disagreements over patrolling arrangements and territorial claims continue to threaten peace along the Line of Actual Control (LAC).
  • The difficult Himalayan terrain and the absence of a mutually agreed boundary complicate resolution.
  • China's rejection of the McMahon Line adds to tensions in the eastern sector. Nevertheless, historical grievances must not become permanent obstacles to reconciliation.
• Rajiv Gandhi's Diplomatic Initiative
  • In 1988, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited China and met Deng Xiaoping, creating a turning point in bilateral relations.
  • The initiative demonstrated that political dialogue could reduce tensions.
  • An important understanding was that the boundary dispute could be addressed separately from other aspects of cooperation.
  • However, subsequent developments weakened this approach.
  • Despite agreements and confidence-building measures, lasting trust remains elusive.
  • Reviving the diplomatic spirit of 1988 could help manage contemporary disagreements.
• Geopolitical Competition and the United States
  • India's growing partnership with the United States, particularly through the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue (QUAD), has intensified Chinese suspicions.
  • Beijing frequently interprets India's participation as part of an American strategy to contain China.
  • India's international partnerships, however, should not automatically be viewed as preparations for confrontation.
  • India must preserve its strategic autonomy, while China must respect India's independent foreign policy.
  • Both countries should replace zero-sum competition with mutual respect and constructive engagement.

Is China an Existential Threat to India?

• China's economic influence, technological advancement and military modernisation make it a major global power.
• Nevertheless, this does not mean that conflict with India is inevitable.
• China seeks to achieve its long-term ambition of becoming a leading world power by 2049, while India prioritises economic growth and national development.
• A prolonged conflict would impose enormous economic and strategic costs on both countries.
• Therefore, military confrontation cannot sustainably resolve bilateral disputes.
• Both governments must ensure military restraint, maintain communication and prevent unintended escalation along the Himalayan border.

The Way Forward for India: Understanding China Is Essential

• Assessing China's Military Capabilities
  • The People's Liberation Army (PLA) and People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) have advanced significantly in missile technology, naval power, surveillance and amphibious operations.
  • However, sophisticated weapons do not guarantee victory in every conflict. Geography, logistics and operational preparedness also determine military effectiveness.
  • India possesses important geographical and operational advantages in the high Himalayas. Nevertheless, it must strengthen border infrastructure, intelligence and defence preparedness.
  • China's military modernisation should be treated as a strategic reality without automatically assuming an imminent attack.
• Understanding China's Strategic Intentions
  • India must distinguish between China's actual intentions and perceptions shaped by political rhetoric.
  • Accurate assessment of Chinese intentions can prevent unnecessary confrontations.
  • In 2005, under President Hu Jintao, China and India signed an agreement promoting a long-term constructive and cooperative partnership.
  • It emphasised that neither country should use or threaten force against the other and that the interests of settled border populations should be protected during boundary negotiations.
  • These principles remain relevant. India must combine diplomatic engagement with vigilance and credible defence capabilities, while China must acknowledge India's legitimate security concerns.
• The Importance of Historical and Political Understanding
  • Understanding China's history, political structures and strategic culture is essential for effective policymaking.
  • The evolution of China's territorial boundaries, including during the Qing dynasty, demonstrates the complexity of its historical experiences and national identity.
  • India must develop a deeper understanding of Chinese history, strategic culture and decision-making to avoid costly miscalculations.
  • China, similarly, must recognise India's historical experiences, security concerns and aspirations as an independent global power.
  • Mutual understanding does not require either country to compromise its legitimate national interests.

 Conclusion

• Despite historical grievances, unresolved territorial disputes and geopolitical competition, peaceful coexistence remains achievable. Renewed diplomacy, effective border-management mechanisms, military restraint and realistic assessments of strategic intentions are essential.
• India must remain vigilant without allowing suspicion to dominate its foreign policy.
• China must respect India's legitimate interests and avoid actions that undermine mutual trust.
• By combining diplomatic engagement with credible defence preparedness, India and China can transform managed coexistence into a durable partnership, contributing to regional peace and global stability.

Why in news?

Recently, elections were held for 28 Legislative Council (MLC) seats across the country. PM Modi took a swipe at the opposition party, noting that MLC elections use ballot papers, not EVMs. The Opposition Party has blamed EVMs for its past electoral losses.

The remarks have revived the EVM vs ballot paper debate. This raises a key question: which elections in India still use ballot papers, and why?

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Ballot Papers in Panchayat Elections
• Reasons Given by States
• Drawbacks of Ballot Papers
• Ground Realities
• Municipal and Student Union Elections
• Single Transferable Vote: Where Ballot Papers Are Necessary

Ballot Papers in Panchayat Elections

• Most elections to Gram Panchayats, Panchayat Samitis and Zilla Parishads still use ballot papers.
• A 2023 study by the Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA), sponsored by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, found:
  • 53% of states use ballot papers for Gram Panchayat elections.
  • Only three States/UTs (Kerala, Sikkim, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu) use EVMs in all Gram Panchayat constituencies.
  • 22% of states are in transition. They use EVMs in some constituencies and ballot papers in others.
  • EVM use rises at higher tiers. In Zilla Panchayat elections, 17% of states use EVMs in all constituencies.

Reasons Given by States

• States using ballot papers cited two main hurdles:
  • Lack of funds.
  • Lack of voter awareness about EVMs.
• The IIPA report found the awareness argument weak. The same voters use EVMs in Assembly and Lok Sabha elections.

Drawbacks of Ballot Papers

• The report highlighted several problems:
  • Counting is slow and cumbersome.
  • It requires huge manpower.
  • It is not environment-friendly.

Ground Realities

• Local practices also explain the continued use of ballot papers.
• Non-party symbols: In rural local body polls, tehsildars allot symbols days before the election. Candidates give three choices and get one. These are not regular party symbols.
• Personal connect matters: A former sarpanch from Maharashtra noted that a candidate’s closeness to voters and help with daily work matter more than ideology in these polls.
• Simultaneous polls: A Bihar official said elections for multiple tiers happen at the same time. Using so many machines would be difficult, so ballot papers are more practical.
• Can EVMs Handle Local Symbols?
  • Former Election Commissioner Ashok Lavasa explained that a process called “symbol loading” allows the required local symbols to be loaded onto EVMs.

Municipal and Student Union Elections

• Municipal Bodies
  • Municipal elections fall under the State Election Commissions (SECs). SECs can choose between EVMs and ballot papers.
    • Municipal Corporation of Delhi: Uses EVMs.
    • Punjab: Shifted to ballot papers in 2026.
  • The Punjab and Haryana High Court upheld this choice. It noted that the Punjab Municipal Election Rules, 1994 permit both methods, leaving the decision to the SEC.
• Student Unions
  • Student union polls also use both methods.
  • Delhi University Students’ Union (DUSU): Uses EVMs. Candidate names appear in alphabetical order, so names and ballot numbers matter.
  • Jawaharlal Nehru University Students’ Union (JNUSU): Uses ballot papers.

Single Transferable Vote: Where Ballot Papers Are Necessary

• Some elections must use ballot papers. These are elections held through the Single Transferable Vote (STV) system.
• Legislative Councils - Under Article 171, MLC elections follow proportional representation through STV. Voters mark their first, second, third and further preferences. This ranking makes the vote transferable. It can only be done on paper, not on an EVM.
• Rajya Sabha - Rajya Sabha elections also use STV and ballot papers. Here, voting MLAs follow an open ballot; they must show their vote to their party’s agent.
• How the STV Quota Works
  • A formula decides the votes needed to win.
  • Quota = [Total votes ÷ (Number of seats + 1)] + 1
  • Example:
    • 200 MLAs vote for 4 seats.
    • 200 ÷ (4 + 1) = 40.
    • Quota = 40 + 1 = 41 votes.
  • Any candidate with 41 first-preference votes is elected.
  • If seats remain vacant, surplus votes of winners are transferred. For instance, a winner with 45 votes has 4 surplus votes. These go to the second-preference candidates.
  • If several winners have surpluses, the largest surplus is transferred first.
  • If seats still remain, the candidate with the fewest first-preference votes is eliminated. Their votes move to the next preference. This continues until all seats are filled.

Conclusion

Ballot papers remain vital where STV voting, local symbols or simultaneous multi-tier polls make EVMs impractical. However, slow counting, high costs and environmental concerns persist. Gradual, well-funded adoption of EVMs in local polls, with strong voter trust, can balance efficiency and credibility.

Why in news?

Recently, elections were held for 28 Legislative Council seats in four states. These polls have drawn attention to the unusual and complex system used to elect Members of Legislative Councils (MLCs). Unlike Assembly elections, not every adult citizen can vote in them.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• A Second Chamber for States
• Debate in the Constituent Assembly
• Composition of the Council
• Key Features of MLC Membership
• Who Votes in MLC Elections?
• How Voting Works?
• How Councils Differ from Rajya Sabha?
• Concern over Stability

A Second Chamber for States

• India has two types of legislatures. Unicameral legislatures have one House. Bicameral legislatures have two Houses.
• The Constitution makes Parliament bicameral, with the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
• For states, however, a second chamber is optional. This chamber is called the Legislative Council (Vidhan Parishad).

Debate in the Constituent Assembly

• The framers disagreed on whether states needed a second chamber.
• Arguments in favour:
  • It would bring diverse viewpoints into lawmaking.
  • It would act as a voice of reason.
  • It would check hasty decisions of the directly elected House.
• Arguments against:
  • It would be expensive.
  • It would slow down government action.
  • Parties could use its seats to reward loyalists.
• The framers reached a middle path. They let states decide whether they want a Council.
• They also capped its size and limited its powers. This created a unique institution.
• Present Status
  • Currently, six states have Legislative Councils: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Telangana.
  • Uttar Pradesh has the largest Council (100 seats). Telangana has the smallest (40 seats).
  • The Representation of the People Act, 1950 also provides seats for Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, but their Councils are not operational.

Composition of the Council

• Article 171 governs the size and structure of Councils.
  • Minimum size: 40 members.
  • Maximum size: One-third of the total strength of the Legislative Assembly.
• Members are chosen as follows:
  • One-third elected by MLAs.
  • One-third elected by members of local bodies.
  • One-twelfth elected by graduates.
  • One-twelfth elected by teachers.
  • The remaining nominated by the Governor.
• The Representation of the People Act, 1950 lays down the exact seat break-up for each Council.

Key Features of MLC Membership

• Term: Six years.
• Continuity: One-third of members retire every two years.
• Eligibility: A candidate must be at least 30 years old and a voter in the state.
• Nominations: The Governor nominates residents with expertise in literature, science, art, the co-operative movement and social service.

Who Votes in MLC Elections?

• MLA Constituency - This is the simplest category. Only sitting MLAs vote.
• Territorial Constituencies - The other three categories are territorial. Eligible voters within a specific area elect their representative.
  • Local authorities: Only sitting members of local bodies can vote.
  • Graduates: The voter must be a citizen, ordinarily resident in the constituency, and must have held a graduate degree from any Indian university for at least three years.
  • Teachers: The voter must have taught for at least three years in the last six years in an institution not lower than secondary school.
• Special Electoral Rolls - Rolls for graduate and teacher constituencies are prepared afresh before every election. Even existing voters must re-apply. Eligibility is counted from the qualifying date of November 1 each year.
• Rationale for Graduate and Teacher Seats
  • Representation of specific groups began before Independence. The Government of India Act, 1935 provided seats on religious, economic and social grounds.
  • In the Constituent Assembly, arguments were made that the Council should represent a province’s intelligentsia.
  • It suggested that subsets of voters, such as graduates, trade unions, local body members and professionals, should elect some members. This idea was adopted in the Constitution.

How Voting Works?

• Single Transferable Vote: General elections are simple: one voter, one vote, one candidate. This allows the use of EVMs. MLC elections, however, use proportional representation through the Single Transferable Vote (STV), as in Rajya Sabha elections.
• That is why they still use ballot papers.
  • The ballot lists all candidates, along with NOTA.
  • Voters rank candidates by writing 1, 2, 3 and so on.
  • A candidate needs a fixed quota of votes to win.
  • Quota formula: (Total valid votes ÷ (Seats + 1)) + 1.
  • Surplus votes of winners pass to the next preferences. The lowest-ranked candidate is eliminated, and their votes are transferred. This continues until all seats are filled.
• Secret Ballot vs Open Ballot
  • In Rajya Sabha elections, MLAs must show their ballot to their party’s agent. Parliament introduced this open ballot system in 2003 to curb cross-voting.
  • In MLC elections, the MLAs’ vote remains secret. They need not show it to anyone.

How Councils Differ from Rajya Sabha?

• Legislative Councils are much weaker than the Rajya Sabha.
• Permanence: Rajya Sabha is a continuous body. A Council’s existence depends on the Assembly. Under Article 169, Parliament can create or abolish a Council if the Assembly passes a resolution by a special majority.
• Legislative power: Councils cannot shape laws passed by the Assembly. They can only delay ordinary bills; the Assembly has the final say.

Concern over Stability

• In 2013, a Parliamentary Committee examining a proposed Council for Rajasthan called for a national policy on creating and abolishing Councils.
• It warned that a second chamber should not depend on the mood of the government of the day.

Conclusion

Legislative Councils give a voice to the educated, teachers and local governments in state lawmaking. Yet their limited powers and dependence on ruling majorities weaken their role. A clear national policy on their creation and abolition can make Councils stable, credible and truly deliberative institutions.

About INS Srishti:

• INS Srishti (Yard 1283) is the fourth Next-Generation Offshore Patrol Vessel (NGOPV) built by Goa Shipyard Limited (GSL) for the Indian Navy.
• INS Srishti forms part of the Indian Navy’s NGOPV acquisition program.
• The project is being executed simultaneously by two Indian shipyards, with seven vessels being constructed by GSL and four by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE).
• The program has been developed under the Buy (Indian-IDDM) category, placing emphasis on indigenous design, development, and manufacturing.
• Designed as versatile multi-mission platforms, the NGOPVs will undertake a broad range of operational tasks, including maritime surveillance, Search and Rescue (SAR), protection of offshore assets, Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief (HADR), and anti-piracy
• Key Features of NGOPVs:
  • The NGOPVs are significantly larger and more capable than the Offshore Patrol Vessels.
  • They can achieve speeds of up to 23 knots and have an endurance of 8,500 nautical miles at a cruising speed of 14 knots.
  • The vessels can operate at sea for up to 60 days.

About Sakurajima Volcano:

• It is located on the southern tip of Kyushu Island near the city of Kagoshima, Southern Japan.
• It lies in Kagoshima Bay (Kinkowan Bay), on the southern edge of the Aira Caldera.
• It is one of Japan’s most active volcanoes, and eruptions of varying levels take place on a regular basis.
• As it is situated on a convergent plate margin, Sakurajima is a stratovolcano formed from layers of lava and ash.
• It is an andesitic volcano.
• It consists of two principal volcanic peaks:
  • Kitadake (Northern Peak): Older and currently inactive.
  • Minamidake (Southern Peak): Younger and currently active.

About Surangams:

• Surangams, also known as tunnel wells, are a remarkable indigenous water management system unique to the Kasaragod District of Kerala and parts of Dakshina Kannada in Karnataka.
• They are also known by different names, such as Surangas, Thurangams, or Thorappu.
• While its origins remain unclear, historians draw parallels to the Qanat system of Persia, introduced to India via the ancient Silk Route.
• Features:
  • These are basically horizontal tunnels dug through a laterite hillock through which water seeps out and into the tunnel.
  • Water is then collected at the end of the tunnel in a storage pit.
  • Built without pumps or electric motors, surangams rely entirely on natural water percolation.
  • They channel underground water to the surface using gravity, ensuring a steady and sustainable supply for households and agriculture.
  • Surangams are dug in places where the hydrogeological profile consists of lateritic and weathered rocks.

About Sankosh River:

• It is a major transboundary river flowing through Bhutan and India.
• It is one of the major north bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra
• In Bhutan, the river is called “Puna Tsang Chu.”
• Course:
  • It originates in northern Bhutan, where it is fed by glacial melt and snow from the Himalayas.
  • It is formed by the confluence of the Phochu and Mochu rivers.
  • It flows southward through Bhutan before crossing into India, where it flows through the Dhubri district of Assam and empties into the Brahmaputra River at Gauripur.
  • In its lower course it forms part of the boundary between the states of Assam and West Bengal.