About Bhadra River:

• It is the east-flowing river in Karnataka.
• Course:
  • It begins at the Western Ghats range and flows across the Deccan Plateau.
  • The tributaries Somavahini, Thadabehalla, and Odirayanahalla join it.
  • The river flows across the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary.
  • The Bhadra meets the Tunga River at Koodli, a small town near Shivamogga.
  • The combined river continues east as the Tungabhadra, a major tributary of the Krishna River.
  • Tungabhadra joins Krishna at Sangamaleshwaram in Andhra Pradesh.
  • The Krishna River finally ends in the Bay of Bengal.
• The total length of Bhadra is 178 km, and it is sub-montane in character.
• Bhadra Dam is a dam built across the Bhadra River near Lakkavalli village.

About Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis (SSPE):

• It is a progressive and usually fatal brain disorder related to measles (rubeola) infection.
• SSPE tends to occur several years after a person has measles, even though the person seems to have fully recovered from the illness.
• Cause:
  • Normally, the measles virus does not cause brain damage. However, an abnormal immune response to measles or, possibly, certain variant forms of the virus may cause severe illness and even death.
  • This response leads to brain inflammation (swelling and irritation) that may last for years.
• SSPE has been reported in all parts of the world, but in western countries it is a rare disease.
• Males are more often affected than females. The disease generally occurs in children and adolescents.
• Symptoms:
  • The first symptoms of SSPE may be poor performance in schoolwork, forgetfulness, temper outbursts, distractibility, sleeplessness, and hallucinations.
  • Sudden muscular jerks of the arms, head, or body may occur.
  • Eventually, seizures may occur, together with abnormal uncontrollable muscle movement Intellect and speech continue to deteriorate.
  • Later, the muscles become increasingly rigid, and swallowing may become difficult.
  • The swallowing difficulty sometimes causes people to choke on their saliva, resulting in pneumonia. People may become blind.
  • In the final phases, the body temperature may rise, and the blood pressure and pulse become abnormal.
• Treatment:
  • High mortality rates are associated with SSPE, and there is no cure for SSPE.
  • Treatment is generally aimed at regulating the symptoms.
  • Certain antiviral medicines and medicines that boost the immune system may be tried to slow the progression of the disease.

About Kyushu Island:

• It is the southernmost and third largest of the four main islands of Japan.
• The island has a land area of 35,640 sq.km.
• It is bordered by the East China Sea to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east.
• The Eastern Channel, or Tsushima Strait, separates Kyushu from the Korean Peninsula in the northwest.
• A series of volcanic ranges, including the world’s largest active volcanic crater, Mount Aso, are located in Kyushu.
• Highest Peak: Mount Kuju (1,794 m)
• Major parts of Kyushu have a subtropical climate and heavy rainfall, which supports its subtropical vegetation.
• The Chikugo (142 km) is the island's longest river.
• The chief cities are the northern industrial complex of Kita-Kyūshū, the commercial centre of Fukuoka and Nagasaki.
• The main crops raised on the island include rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and citrus fruit.
• Industries, concentrated in northern Kyushu, include iron and steel and chemicals.
• Saga ken (prefecture) is famous for porcelain and pottery.

About Phansad Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Murud region of Raigad district, Maharashtra.
• It was created to preserve some of the coastal woodland ecosystem of the Western Ghats and consists of 17,250 acres of forest, grasslands, and wetlands.
• The area was once part of the hunting reserves of the princely state of Murud-Janjira.
• Pockets of open grassland, called "mals" occur throughout the sanctuary.
• Flora: Some of the plants which are found in the sanctuary are Ain, Kinjal, Teak, Hirda, Jamba, Mango, Ficus, and many more.
• Fauna:
  • The major species which can be spotted here include leopard, hyena, sambar, and mouse deer.
  • The region also houses several beautiful species of birds, including Malabar Pied Hornbill, Black Eagle, Yellow Footed Green Pigeon, Pompadour Green Pigeon, and Forest Wagtail.
  • The White-rumped vulture (Gyps bengalensis), which is noted as critically endangered, is also found in the sanctuary.

 About End-Permian Mass Extinction (EPME):

• The EPME, also known as the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event or "The Great Dying," was the most severe extinction event in Earth's history.
• It occurred approximately 252 million years ago and marked the transition from the Permian to the Triassic Period.
• The Triassic Period is the first period of the Mesozoic Era, lasting from 252 million to 201 million years ago.
• Cause:
• When the supercontinent Pangea was in the process of breaking up, all the land on Earth was still largely clustered together, with the newly formed continents separated by shallow seas.
• An enormous eruption from a volcanic system called the Siberian Traps seems to have pushed carbon dioxide levels to extremes.
• The eruption covered around 2 million square kilometers with lava and was one of the largest volcanic events in Earth’s history.
• The eruptions may have caused large amounts of carbon dioxide to be released into the atmosphere and caused a large-scale global warming effect of more than 10°C on land and around 8°C on the ocean surface in a short period of time.
• The eruptions may have also caused acid aerosols and dust clouds to be released into the atmosphere, which blocked out the sun and prevented photosynthesis from occurring, effectively causing many food chains to collapse.
• This caused global warming and ocean acidification, leading to a massive collapse of the ocean ecosystem.
• Impacts:
  • EPME was characterized by the elimination of about 90 percent of the species on Earth, which included more than 95 percent of the marine species and 70 percent of the terrestrial species.
  • In addition, more than half of all taxonomic families present at the time disappeared.
  • It ranks first in severity among the five major extinction episodes that span geologic time.

Why in news?

Bharti Airtel and Reliance Jio have partnered with SpaceX’s Starlink to provide satellite internet in India, marking a shift from the telecom industry's earlier resistance to launching Starlink without spectrum auctions.

What’s in today’s article?

• About Starlink
• Starlink Pricing Structure
• Regulatory Challenges for Starlink in India

About Starlink

• Starlink is a low-earth orbit (LEO) satellite constellation with over 7,000 satellites that provide internet access to users via ground terminals.
• It is owned by Elon Musk's SpaceX and is available in around 40 countries.
• Working of Starlink
  • Satellites continuously orbit the Earth, covering almost the entire habitable surface.
  • Ground terminals connect to satellites, which in turn communicate with ground stations physically linked to the internet.
  • This setup enables wireless internet connectivity in areas lacking traditional broadband infrastructure.
• Starlink’s Speed and Latency
  • Offers speeds of around 100 Mbps, similar to many home broadband connections.
  • Latency (time for data transmission) is higher than wired broadband, making it less ideal for applications requiring real-time responsiveness.
• Starlink’s Use in India
  • Not very useful in cities with strong 5G and wired broadband networks, as these offer better speed and reliability.
  • Highly beneficial for rural and remote areas, providing instant connectivity where traditional networks are unavailable.
• Starlink’s Potential Benefits
  • Bridging the Digital Divide
    • Starlink can provide internet access to rural and remote areas, helping reduce the gap between urban and rural regions.
  • Connectivity for Maritime & Offshore Operations
    • Useful for commercial fishing ships, merchant vessels, offshore oil rigs, and deep-sea researchers.
    • Solo sea voyagers can stay connected for entertainment or emergency assistance.
  • Disaster Response & Emergency Communication
    • During natural disasters (tsunamis, cyclones, earthquakes), when telecom infrastructure fails, Starlink can enable quick setup of communication centres for military and emergency responders.
    • Trekkers with Starlink mobile kits can send SOS messages for timely rescue.

Starlink Pricing Structure

• Starlink has two main costs:
  • User Terminal (Hardware) – A router-like device required to access the satellite network.
  • Monthly Subscription Fee – The cost to stay connected to the service.
• Starlink’s pricing in India is not expected to be lower, as the technology’s costs remain the same worldwide.
• Final pricing will depend on regulatory approvals and local market adjustments.

Regulatory Challenges for Starlink in India

• Starlink has encountered several regulatory hurdles, primarily due to the Indian government’s strict scrutiny of internet services, particularly those enabling nationwide access.
• Key Approvals Required
  • GMPCS Authorisation – SpaceX needs a Global Mobile Personal Communications by Satellite (GMPCS) license under the Telecommunications Act, 2023.
    • The new rules under this Act are yet to be published.
    • It is unclear if the license will be issued under previous regulations.
  • Security Clearance from the Ministry of Home Affairs – Reports suggest SpaceX has addressed corporate ownership disclosure concerns, but the security clearance status remains unknown.
  • Ground Stations & Law Enforcement Access –
    • Starlink must establish ground stations in India that comply with telecom regulations.
    • The Telecom Act requires tapping equipment at ground stations for law enforcement access, a standard requirement for internet networks.
• Spectrum Allocation Dispute
• Government Stance: The government does not plan to auction satellite spectrum, as these narrow beams can be shared among providers.
• Telcos' Demand: Before partnering with Starlink, telecom companies (especially Reliance Jio) argued that spectrum should be auctioned, citing the Supreme Court’s 2012 judgment in the 2G scam case, which mandated auctions for scarce natural resources.
• Legal Uncertainty: Jio has commissioned legal opinions supporting spectrum auctions, but the government’s final decision remains unclear.
• Potential Fast-Tracking of Approval
  • Elon Musk’s growing influence in the U.S. government and trade pressures from the U.S. (including under Donald Trump’s administration) may accelerate Starlink’s entry into India.
• Current Status
  • No official confirmation on regulatory approvals yet.
  • Airtel and Jio have signed commercial distribution agreements, but regulatory clearance is still pending.