About Holocene Epoch:

• It is the current period of geologic time.
• The term was introduced by Gervais in 1869 and was accepted as part of valid geological nomenclature by the International Geological Congress in 1885.
• Another term that is sometimes used is the ‘’Anthropocene Epoch’’, because its primary characteristic is the global changes caused by human activity.
• The Holocene Epoch began 12,000 to 11,500 years ago at the end of the last Ice Age (the Pleistocene Epoch) and continues to the present.
• Continental motions are negligible over a span of only 10,000 years—less than a kilometer. However, ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 meters in the early part of the Holocene.
• It is marked by a significant warming trend and relative climate stability compared to the previous glacial period.

About Pompeii:

• It is a preserved ancient Roman city located near modern-day Naples, Italy.
• It lies at the southeastern base of Mount Vesuvius.
• The area was originally settled in the Bronze Age on an escarpment at the mouth of the Sarnus (modern Sarno) River.
• Pompeii was built on a spur formed by a prehistoric lava flow to the north of the mouth of the Sarno River.
• Pompeii was founded around the 6th century BC by the Samnites, an ancient Italian tribe.
• It was conquered and absorbed into the Roman Empire in 80 BCE.
• The city was buried in volcanic ash following the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in 79 CE, instantly killing its inhabitants and preserving the city in a remarkable state of preservation.
• Pompeii was basically lost and forgotten until it was rediscovered in 1748.
• Its excellent state of preservation gives an invaluable insight into Roman everyday life.
• It is the only archaeological site in the world that provides a complete picture of an ancient Roman city.
• It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

About Mammogram:

• Mammography is a test that uses low-dose X-rays to create images of the breast. These images are called mammograms.
• Healthcare providers use mammograms, or mammography, to look for early signs of breast cancer before symptoms develop. This is called a screening mammogram.
• Providers also use mammography to look for any abnormalities if one develops a new symptom, such as a lump, pain, nipple discharge or breast skin changes. This is called a diagnostic mammogram.
  • Although it’s called a “diagnostic mammogram,” it can’t diagnose breast cancer.
  • However, it can show whether the abnormal findings look like breast cancer.
  • But these abnormal signs can also be caused by a breast condition that is benign (not cancer).

About Noyyal River:

• It is a tributary of the Kaveri River and flows through Tamil Nadu.
• Course:
  • It begins from numerous small streams in the Vellingiri Hills of the Western Ghats.
  • It flows through the districts of Coimbatore, Tirupur, and Erode and meets the Cauvery River at the Noyyal village in Karur District.
• It is a seasonal river with rapid flows during the monsoon
• Most of these check dams and anicuts were constructed by the Chola Kings, who ruled the region in the 9th to 12th centuries to augment irrigation and control floods downstream.
• Until the early 20th century, the Noyyal was the main drinking water source for the region.

About  Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in Rajasthan, in the Aravalli range.
• The sanctuary is named after Nahargarh Fort, a historic fort built in the 18th century by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II, the founder of Jaipur.
• It connects ecologically with other forest areas like the Ranthambore Tiger Reserve.
• Within the sanctuary is the Nahargarh Biological Park.
• Flora: The sanctuary features a rugged terrain with hills, valleys, seasonal streams, and dry deciduous forests typical of the semi-arid region, including trees such as dhok, babool, khejri, and ber.
• Fauna:
  • Common species include leopards, wild boars, deer, lions, tigers, sloth bears, and several small mammals.
  • It’s a haven for bird watchers, with a variety of species, including peacocks, owls, and eagles.
  • It is also home to reptiles like Indian rock pythons, monitor lizards, and amphibians like frogs and toads.

About Theridion Himalayana:

• It is a new species of ‘happy-face spider’ belongs to the ‘Theridiidae’ family.
• It was discovered in western Himalayas of India.
• Features
  • It is polymorphic in both sexes and has 32 different morphs that exhibit patterns of a smiling face with dots in colours of red, black and white arranged differently.
  • It could also be a crucial pollinator for some plants

About Tapir:

• Tapirs are large herbivorous mammals.
• They are often called “living fossils” due to their lineage dating back millions of years.
• Appearance: They have short, flexible snout, tapirs use it to grab leaves and fruits.
• They are excellent swimmers and spend a lot of time in water.
• Diet: They’re herbivores and fifty per cent of their diet consists of fruit.
• Distribution: They inhabit jungle and forest regions of South America, Central America, and Southeast Asia. 
• There are only four species of tapirs. They live in distinct geographical areas.
  • Malayan Tapir: It is the largest of the tapirs which is native to Southeast Asia. Its black-and-white stripes help it blend into the forest. (IUCN Status: Endangered)
  • Baird’s Tapir: It is Central America's biggest land mammal. It is found in tropical forests and around water. (IUCN Status: Endangered)
  • Lowland Tapir: The South American tapir is the most widespread. It is found in the Amazon Basin and other areas. (IUCN Status: Vulnerable)
  • Mountain Tapir: It is the rarest and found in the high Andes. (IUCN Status: Endangered)
• Ecological Role: They form an important part of the ecosystem as seed dispersers.

About Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries:

• It is a permanent intergovernmental organization of oil-exporting countries.
• It was established in 1960 by the five founding members Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela. 
• Objective: Its primary objective is to stabilize global oil markets and ensure fair prices for producers along with a steady supply for consumers.
• Member countries: Currently, it has 12 members, including Algeria, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Libya, Nigeria, and the United Arab Emirates (Decided to quit from May 1 2026).
• Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
• OPEC members collectively hold more than 75–80% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves.
• The organization produces around 35–40% of the world’s total crude oil supply.
• OPEC plays a crucial role in influencing global oil prices by adjusting production levels.

What is OPEC+?

• It is an extension of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries formed in 2016.
• It consists of 22 oil-exporting countries which meet regularly to decide how much crude oil to sell on the world market.
• Members of OPEC+: It comprises 12 OPEC countries plus Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mexico, Malaysia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Oman.
• These nations aim to work together on adjusting crude oil production to bring stability to the oil market.

About Atacama Desert:

• Location: It is the driest desert in the world, located in northern Chile.
• It is nestled between the Andes Mountains on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
• Bordered by: It is bordered by Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia
• It also hosts 12 volcanoes, mainly located in the western outliers of the Andes.
• Rainfall: Average rainfall in this region is about 1 mm per year. Some locations within the desert have never had any rainfall whatsoever.
• Temperature: Temperatures are comparatively mild throughout the year. The average temperature in the desert is about 63 degrees F (18 degrees C).
• Natural Resources: This region has the largest natural supply of Sodium Nitrate, which can be used for producing fertilizers and explosives, amongst other things. 
• Chinchorro Mummies: The oldest artificially mummified human remains have been found in the Atacama Desert.

About Somalia:

• It is an African country located in the Horn of Africa.
• The Equator passes through southern Somalia.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by Djibouti (Northwest), Ethiopia (West), and Kenya (Southwest). 
• Maritime Borders: The Gulf of Aden and Indian Ocean
• Capital city: Mogadishu
• Geographical Features of Somalia:
  • Climate: It has an arid or semiarid climate, and there is little seasonal change in temperature.
  • Relief: The Somali peninsula consists mainly of a tableland of young limestone and sandstone formations.
  • In the extreme north, along the Gulf of Aden, is a narrow coastal plain called the Guban.
  • Rivers: Jubba and the Shabeelle
  • Highest Peak: Highest point Somalia is Mount Shimbiris
  • Natural Resources: It mainly consists of iron ore, uranium, copper, tin, bauxite, gypsum, salt