About Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances:

• These are toxic, man-made, hazardous chemicals.
• These are also known as the Forever Chemicals, are a large chemical family of fluorinated chemicals that have partially or completely fluorinated carbon chains of varied lengths. 
• Because the carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest, these chemicals do not degrade easily in the environment.
• Subgroups: Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
• These subgroups are currently listed under the Stockholm Convention as industrial POPs.
• Applications: PFASs are used in the chemical industry including in Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) production,  the metal plating industry, in the photo imaging industry, and in the semiconductor
• How Are People Exposed to PFAS?
  • They are ingredients in various everyday products. For example, PFAS are used to keep food from sticking to packaging or cookware, make clothes and carpets resistant to stains.
  • PFAS are used in the aerospace, automotive, construction, and electronics industries. Over time, PFAS may leak into the soil, water, and air.
  • People are most likely exposed to these chemicals by consuming PFAS-contaminated water or food, using products made with PFAS, or breathing air containing PFAS. 
• Impacts of PFAS on Human Health: Decreased fertility, developmental effects in children, interference with body hormones, increased cholesterol levels, and increased risk of some cancers.
• Regulation: The Stockholm Convention has listed some PFAS, such as Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) and Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), as persistent organic pollutants (POPs).

About Madras Hedgehog:

• Madras Hedgehog, locally known as Mulleli is a tiny mammal.
• It is also known as the bare-bellied hedgehog, discovered in 1851.
• Habitat: The species prefers dry scrublands, thorn forests, grasslands and the edges of farmlands. 
• Distribution: It is found only in peninsular India, primarily across Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and parts of Karnataka.
• Features
  • It has sharp spines on its back and soft white fur on its belly.
  • Its spines offer protection from predators such as foxes, jackals and mongooses.
  • It is a nocturnal species that curls into a ball to protect itself from danger.
  • It has mastered survival in some of the harshest and driest landscapes.
  • Life Span: It has a short lifespan of five to six years.
  • Diet: It feeds on insects such as beetles, ants, earthworms and termites, apart from plants.
• Conservation Status: IUCN: Least Concern
• Ecological Role
  • It controls insect populations and aerates soil.
  • It supports the delicate web of life in India’s dry ecosystems.
• Threats: Its population declined largely due to hunting driven by mythical beliefs that its quills and meat have medicinal value.

About Tar balls:

• Tar balls are small, dark, sticky blobs of weathered oil that form in marine environments due to oil spills or natural seeps.
• Formation:
  • Tar balls are formed by weathering of crude oil in marine environments. They are transported from the open sea to the shores by sea currents and waves.
  • They undergo physical, chemical, and biological processes, resulting in semi-solid or solid lumps that often wash ashore, causing environmental damage and posing risks to human health. ​
  • Some of the balls are as big as a basketball while others are smaller globules.
• Composition: These tar balls contain toxic contaminants, such as heavy metals, trace elements, and persistent organic pollutants,
• Impacts of Tar Balls
  • Biodiversity: They often accumulate on beaches and pose a danger to seabirds, fish, and marine animals, such as sea turtles, which may mistakenly ingest them, thinking they are food.
  • India’s western coast, particularly the area from Gujarat to Goa, is significantly affected by tar balls, especially during the seasonal period from April to September.

About Annual Survey of Incorporated Services Sector Enterprises:

• It is launched by the National Statistics Office, under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
• It is aimed at developing a comprehensive database of the incorporated services sector of the country.
• The survey uses the Goods and Services Tax Network (GSTN) database as a sampling
• The survey covers corporate entities in the services sector – companies registered under the Companies Act, 1956/2013 or Limited Liability Partnership Act, 2008. 
• The ASISSE will survey over 1.21 lakh enterprises, making it one of the largest exercises of its kind.
• It will be conducted under the provisions of Collection of Statistics Act, 2008, as amended in 2017 and through the Jan Vishwas (Amendment of Provisions) Act, 2023 and data will be collected through a secure web-based portal.

Key Facts about National Statistical Office

• It is the central statistical agency of India responsible for collecting, processing, and disseminating official statistical data.
• The NSO was formed in 2019 by merging two key statistical bodies to improve efficiency, coordination, and data quality in India’s statistical system.
• It plays a crucial role in evidence-based policymaking, planning, and governance.
• The NSO is headed by the Chief Statistician of India (CSI), who oversees all statistical activities and ensures coordination between departments.
• It functions under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation.

Why in news?

• Internet access in India depends on the Internet Service Provider (ISP), not just in terms of price and quality, but also which websites are accessible.
• ISPs block websites based on government and court orders, but implementation differs, leading to varying blocklists across providers.
• Under the Information Technology Act, 2000 (Sections 69A and 79), the government has the power to order such blocks.
• ISP licensing agreements require providers to comply with blocking orders, which are confidential and binding.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Internet Censorship in India
• How ISPs Block Websites: DNS and Protocols
• What the Data Shows: Inconsistent and Opaque Website Blocking

Internet Censorship in India

• Internet censorship refers to the control or suppression of what can be accessed, published, or viewed on the internet.
• In India, it sits at the intersection of free speech, national security, public order, and digital governance.
• Constitutional Basis
  • Article 19(1)(a) guarantees freedom of speech and expression, which courts have extended to online speech.
  • Article 19(2) permits reasonable restrictions on grounds of sovereignty, security of state, public order, decency, and morality.
  • Internet shutdown or censorship must pass the test of reasonableness and proportionality.
• Legal Framework
  • Information Technology Act, 2000
    • Section 69A — Empowers the Central Government to block websites/content in the interest of sovereignty, security, public order, etc.
    • Section 66A (now struck down) — Criminalised "offensive" online speech; declared unconstitutional in Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015).
    • Section 79 — Safe harbour provision for intermediaries.
  • IT (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021
    • Mandates traceability of message originators (threatens end-to-end encryption).
    • Requires significant social media intermediaries to appoint Grievance Officers.
    • Controversial for placing heavy compliance burdens on platforms.
  • Telecom Act, 2023
    • Replaces the Telegraph Act; consolidates powers related to telecom suspension, including internet services.
• Types of Censorship Practiced in India
  • Website Blocking — Blocking of URLs/domains by ISPs on government orders (e.g., pornographic sites, piracy sites, separatist content).
  • Internet Shutdowns — Suspension of mobile/broadband internet in specific regions during unrest (e.g., Jammu & Kashmir, Manipur).
  • Social Media Takedowns — Government directives to platforms to remove specific posts, accounts, or content.
  • App Bans — Banning of Chinese apps (e.g., TikTok, PUBG Mobile) under Section 69A citing national security.

How ISPs Block Websites: DNS and Protocols

• The Internet works through protocols like Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Transport Layer Security (TLS), and Domain Name System (DNS) among others. ISPs can use any of these to block websites.
• DNS (Domain Name System) is the first step when accessing a website, converting domain names into IP addresses.
• ISPs often block websites at the DNS level using DNS poisoning, where incorrect addresses are returned instead of the real ones.
• As a result, users are redirected away from the actual website.
• Most Indian ISPs prefer DNS blocking because it is cheap and easy to implement without advanced inspection.

What the Data Shows: Inconsistent and Opaque Website Blocking

• Scale of the Study - Analysis of 294 million domains across six ISPs in 2025 found 43,083 blocked domains.
• Lack of Uniform Blocking - Only 1,414 domains were blocked by all six ISPs. ISPs do not block the same websites despite receiving similar orders.
• Variation by Content Type - Majority of blocked sites include: Piracy, peer-to-peer sharing, pornography, and gambling. Blocking is inconsistent across ISPs for these categories.
• Higher Consistency in Sensitive Cases - Domains related to terrorism and militancy show higher blocking consistency. Some cases (e.g., Weibo, The Kashmir Walla) show uniform enforcement.
• Arbitrary and Uneven Implementation - ISPs engage in arbitrary blocking practices. Lack of standard guidelines leads to a haphazard blocking system.
• Issue of Opacity - The blocking system is non-transparent. There is a need for disclosure of blocked domains, except in sensitive cases.

Why in news?

• On 1 April 2026, the government launched a CBSE curriculum on Computational Thinking (CT) and AI for Classes 3–8.
• The aim is to build skills like logical reasoning, problem-solving, and pattern recognition, and introduce students to AI in daily life.
• The programme will begin from the 2026–27 academic session and is seen as a step toward future-ready education.
• While the initiative is ambitious and welcome, its success depends on proper implementation and sequencing.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• The Missing Foundation: LSRW Skills in AI Learning
• What the Data Reveals: Learning Deficit Across Schools
• A Promise and a Deadline: Literacy Goals vs Reality
• What the Curriculum Assumes: Dependence on Foundational Skills

The Missing Foundation: LSRW Skills in AI Learning

• Importance of LSRW Skills - Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing (LSRW) form the core of meaningful learning. They are the cognitive foundation for understanding, processing, and expressing ideas across all subjects, including AI.
• CT Curriculum Built on Language - Computational Thinking (CT) is integrated across subjects, not a standalone discipline. It is delivered through language, requiring students to read, interpret, and respond to text.
• Learning Activities Depend on Comprehension - Curriculum includes puzzles, pattern exercises, and problem-solving tasks embedded in textbooks. Students must interpret texts and analyse information to complete these tasks.
• Assessment Requirements - Evaluations involve: Written tests with CT questions; Group activities; Teacher observations. All require basic reading and comprehension skills.
• Core Concern - The CT curriculum effectively functions as a literacy-based learning tool. Students who lack grade-level reading ability will face it as a reading challenge rather than a thinking exercise.

What the Data Reveals: Learning Deficit Across Schools

• Evidence from ASER 2024 - The ASER 2024 report shows that over half of Class 5 students in government schools cannot read a Class 2-level text. This basic reading benchmark has remained unchanged since 2006.
• Persistent Literacy Gap - Even after five years of schooling, many children fail to achieve foundational reading skills. This highlights a serious gap in basic learning outcomes.
• Not Limited to Rural or Government Schools - The assumption that private or urban schools perform better is incorrect. Learning deficits exist across different school types.
• Findings from PARAKH 2024 - The national assessment covering 23 lakh students found that:
  • Urban private school students performed worse than rural counterparts at Grade 3 level.
  • Government school students scored higher in Language and Mathematics.
• Implication for CBSE Students - Students entering CBSE classrooms are not insulated from the literacy crisis. They are directly affected by the same foundational learning challenges.

A Promise and a Deadline: Literacy Goals vs Reality

• NIPUN Bharat Mission - Launched in 2021 to ensure foundational literacy and numeracy by Grade 3. Target year set as 2026–27.
• Current Status of Learning Levels - ASER 2024 shows improvement since 2022. However, more than half of Class 5 students still cannot read a Class 2-level text.
• Gap Between Target and Achievement - The literacy goal remains incomplete as of the latest data. Foundational learning levels are still below expectations.
• Overlap with CT Curriculum Launch - The CT curriculum is introduced in the same year the literacy target was to be achieved. This creates a mismatch between policy goals and ground reality.

What the Curriculum Assumes: Dependence on Foundational Skills

• Focus on Higher-Order Cognitive Skills - The CT curriculum aims to develop logical, critical, and analytical thinking. These are advanced skills that depend on basic comprehension.
• Comprehension as a Prerequisite - Abstract reasoning cannot develop without the ability to understand written text and instructions. Weak reading skills hinder the development of computational thinking.
• Increasing Complexity in Class 6 - From Class 6, assessments include: Project presentations; Reflective journals; Written assignments. AI concepts are also introduced at this stage.
• Risk of Early Learning Breakdown - Students struggling with reading in earlier classes may fail to build foundational CT skills. The gap becomes visible later, indicating an early breakdown in the learning pipeline.
• Assessment Challenges - Evaluation methods require strong written and oral skills (LSRW). Without these, assessments measure literacy gaps instead of computational thinking ability.

The Unfulfilled Parallel: LSRW and CT

• Foundational Priority of LSRW - Foundational literacy and numeracy were identified as the highest priority under NEP 2020. NIPUN Bharat was launched to achieve this goal.
• Gap Between Policy and Outcomes - Despite policy focus, LSRW has not been achieved at scale. Data shows that foundational learning gaps still persist.
• CT as the New Priority - Computational Thinking (CT) is now being promoted as a key educational priority. The curriculum is: Well-designed and ambitious; Developed by leading academic institutions; Based on activity-based and ethical approaches.

The Sequencing Question: Literacy Before AI

• Global Experience - Countries like Finland, Singapore, and South Korea introduced AI education after achieving strong foundational literacy. Curriculum reforms followed literacy, not preceded it.
• India’s Current Position - India has institutional momentum with initiatives like NIPUN Bharat. ASER 2024 shows improvement in reading levels, though gaps remain.
• Need for Careful Sequencing - The issue is not whether to introduce CT and AI, but whether students are ready. Foundational literacy must support the rollout.
• Ground Reality in Classrooms - Students in Class 3 face CT tasks alongside existing reading gaps. The effectiveness of the curriculum depends on the child’s readiness.

Conclusion

A curriculum’s success depends on learning foundations. Addressing CT without fixing literacy gaps does not achieve true transformation.

Context:

• Climate change discussions usually focus on sea-level rise, extreme weather, and economic impacts, but often ignore its health consequences.
• It is creating a broad medical crisis by worsening existing diseases and enabling new ones to emerge.
• In India, frequent urban flooding (e.g., Mumbai) leads to waterlogging, which:
  • Damages sanitation systems
  • Contaminates drinking water
  • Increases diseases like cholera, typhoid, hepatitis A, and leptospirosis
• At the same time, drought-affected areas face water scarcity, forcing people to use unsafe water, leading to: Higher cases of diarrhoeal diseases; Chronic dehydration.
• Thus, climate change is intensifying health risks through both excess water and water scarcity.
• This article highlights how climate change has evolved into a major public health emergency in India, impacting disease patterns, air quality, food security, and overall human health.

Expanding Disease Risk Due to Climate Change

• Changing Seasonal Patterns
  • Shifts in temperature and rainfall are increasing infections, allergies, and vector-borne diseases.
  • Longer pollen seasons and altered cycles are expanding disease timelines and spread.
• Wider Geographic Spread
  • Diseases are reaching new regions where populations lack immunity.
  • Health systems in these areas are often unprepared to handle outbreaks.
• Rise in Mosquito-Borne Diseases
  • Warmer conditions are making new regions suitable for mosquito breeding.
  • In Delhi-NCR, dengue cases now peak later (November instead of September) due to prolonged favourable conditions.
• Rise in Mosquito-Borne Diseases
  • Warmer conditions are making new regions suitable for mosquito breeding.
  • In Delhi-NCR, dengue cases now peak later (November instead of September) due to prolonged favourable conditions.

Climate Change Threats to Human Health

• Rising Air Pollution and Emissions - Higher temperatures increase air conditioning use, leading to more greenhouse gas emissions. This raises levels of PM2.5, which harms multiple organs.
• Impact on Respiratory Health - Fine particles penetrate deep into the lungs, causing: Inflammation and reduced lung function; Worsening of asthma and COPD.
• Cardiovascular and Kidney Effects - PM2.5 damages blood vessels, increasing risks of Hypertension, heart attack, and stroke. Long-term exposure also harms kidneys, leading to reduced filtration and chronic kidney disease.
• Heat Stress and Feedback Loop - Greenhouse gases trap heat, intensifying warming. Heat stress forces the heart to work harder, increasing cardiovascular strain and related illnesses.
• Vulnerable Populations and Heat Impact - Outdoor workers and those without shelter face higher risks. Regions like Odisha, Telangana, and Vidarbha report rising heatstroke deaths. Rising night temperatures reduce recovery time after heat exposure.
• Impact on Infant Health - Extreme heat and pollution are linked to: Preterm births; Low birth weight.

Impact of Climate Change on Food Security and Health

• Disruption of Agriculture and Food Supply - Extreme weather and unseasonal rains disrupt crop cycles and reduce agricultural productivity. This leads to food shortages and rising prices.
• Declining Nutritional Quality - Reduced crop quality and higher costs create: Micronutrient deficiencies; Chronic malnutrition, especially among children.
• Impact on Dairy and Nutrition - Heat stress reduces milk production in cattle. This affects infant and child nutrition.
• Health Consequences - Food insecurity leads to: Weakened immunity; Increased disease vulnerability, particularly among children and the elderly.

Climate Change as a Present Health Crisis

• Climate change is no longer a distant threat but a current public health issue in India.
• It is a multifaceted challenge, and recognising it as a medical emergency is essential for urgent action.

Why in the News?

• India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam has achieved criticality, marking a key milestone in the nuclear programme.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About FBR (Concept, Significance, Criticality, etc.)
• News Summary (Criticality in Kalpakkam FBR, Significance)

About Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

• A FFBR is a type of nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than it consumes.
• Unlike conventional reactors, which use thermal (slow) neutrons, FBRs use fast neutrons to sustain nuclear fission. This allows efficient utilisation of fuel and enhances energy output.
• FBRs typically use plutonium-based fuel, often in the form of Mixed Oxide (MOX), along with fertile materials such as uranium-238. These fertile materials are converted into fissile material (like plutonium-239) during reactor operation.
• A key feature of FBRs is the “breeding” process. In this process, non-fissile material is transformed into fissile material through neutron absorption, thereby creating additional fuel.
• FBRs are crucial for countries like India that have limited uranium reserves but abundant thorium resources.
• They form the second stage of India’s three-stage nuclear programme, enabling the transition toward thorium-based energy systems.

Significance of Fast Breeder Reactors

• Fast breeder reactors play a critical role in ensuring long-term energy security.
• They significantly improve fuel efficiency by extracting more energy from available uranium resources.
• They also reduce nuclear waste by utilising materials that would otherwise remain unused.
• In India’s context, FBRs are essential for converting thorium into uranium-233, which is vital for the third stage of the nuclear programme.

Criticality in Nuclear Reactors

• Criticality refers to the state in which a nuclear reactor achieves a self-sustaining chain reaction.
• At this stage, each fission event produces enough neutrons to sustain further fission reactions without external intervention.
• Criticality is a crucial milestone in reactor commissioning. It indicates that the reactor core is functioning as designed and is ready to move toward power generation.
• There are three states associated with criticality:

• Subcritical state, where the reaction dies out over time.
• Critical state, where the reaction is stable and self-sustaining.
• Supercritical state, where the reaction increases rapidly.

• Achieving controlled criticality is essential for the safe and efficient operation of nuclear reactors.

News Summary

• India’s 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam in Tamil Nadu has attained criticality, marking a defining step in the country’s nuclear energy programme.
• The reactor is located at the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research and is operated by Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI), a public sector enterprise under the Department of Atomic Energy.
• The PFBR is a sodium-cooled, pool-type fast breeder reactor that uses mixed oxide (MOX) fuel consisting of uranium-238 and plutonium-239. It is designed to generate more fissile material than it consumes, thereby enhancing fuel sustainability.
• Achieving criticality means that the reactor has initiated a self-sustaining nuclear fission chain reaction, indicating readiness for eventual power generation.
• The project is a key component of India’s three-stage nuclear programm
  • In the first stage, Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) produce plutonium.
  • In the second stage, fast breeder reactors like PFBR use this plutonium to generate additional fissile material.
  • The third stage aims to use thorium to produce uranium-233 for long-term energy security.
• India is now among a select group of countries possessing advanced fast breeder reactor technology, with Russia being the only other nation operating commercial-scale FBRs.
• The reactor also incorporates important safety features such as a negative void coefficient, which reduces reaction rates in case of overheating, enhancing operational safety.
• Overall, the achievement of criticality at Kalpakkam marks a significant step toward India’s goal of developing a closed nuclear fuel cycle and reducing dependence on imported uranium.

Context:

• The recommendations of the Sixteenth Finance Commission (2026–31), accepted by the Union government, have sparked serious concerns regarding the future of fiscal federalism in India.
• While retaining the states’ share at 41%, the Commission’s structural changes in devolution, grants, and fiscal design indicate a shift toward centralisation and discretionary control.

Key Changes in Fiscal Architecture:

• Shrinking effective devolution:
  • Although the nominal share of states remains 41%, the effective share has declined from about 36% to 32%.
  • This is attributed to expansion of cesses and surcharges (outside divisible pool), and reduced scope of statutory transfers.
  • Several states (especially smaller and northeastern states) face reduced tax shares (e.g., about 15.5% drop for Northeast [NE] states).
• Alteration in horizontal distribution criteria:
  • Revised devolution formula has adversely impacted 14 states, particularly fiscally weaker ones.
  • The formula does not adequately account for the regional disparities, and the special needs of backward regions.
• Discontinuation of Statutory grants (Article 275):
  • Revenue deficit grants, sector-specific grants, and state-specific grants have been discontinued.
  • Traditionally, these grants ensured equity-based fiscal support, assistance for tribal welfare and special area administration.
• Rise of discretionary transfers (Article 282):
  • Increased reliance on discretionary grants, which is less transparent, conditional and performance-linked.
  • Marks a shift from the entitlement-based transfers to conditional transfers, and from predictability to uncertainty.
• Increased allocation to third tier:
  • Allocation of about ₹7.91 lakh crore to panchayats and urban local bodies, with 80% basic grants, and 20% performance-based grants.
  • While decentralisation is strengthened, it alters the constitutional balance by treating local bodies as parallel stakeholders in vertical distribution.

Constitutional Concerns:

• Misinterpretation of Article 275 vs Article 282:
  • Article 275: Statutory, need-based, and accountable grants to the States, charged on the Consolidated Fund of India.
  • Article 282: Discretionary and non-binding grants to the States. The 16th Finance Commission’s approach of treating both (Statutory and Discretionary grants) as interchangeable undermines constitutional intent.
• Weakening of federal structure: Shift from equity-driven to efficiency-driven criteria, from State-centric to Centre-controlled transfers, undermining the autonomy of states, a core feature of the basic structure doctrine.
• Distortion in federal hierarchy: States (constitutional entities under Part VI) are being equated with the local bodies (products of 73rd & 74th Amendments). Risks diluting the federal compact.

Key Challenges:

• Rising regional inequality: Reduced support for fiscally weaker and special category states. Inadequate recognition of post-GST fiscal asymmetries.
• GST-induced fiscal distortions:
  • Shift to a destination-based tax regime, for instance, producer states lose revenue advantage.
  • The Finance Commission failed to address GST Council dynamics, IGST settlement issues, and the cost of tax collection disparities.
• Centralisation via cesses and schemes: Growing use of cesses and surcharges reduces the divisible pool. Expansion of Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) increases conditionality.
• Weakening equalisation principle: Aggregated fiscal deficit (0.3% of GDP) used to deny the need for grants. It ignores State-specific needs, and the social justice obligations (for SC/ST welfare).

Way Forward:

• Restore equity-based transfers: Reintroduce Article 275 grants as equalisation grants, based on multi-dimensional criteria (poverty, SC/ST population, geography).
• Rationalise divisible pool: Bring cesses and surcharges partially into the divisible pool. Ensure true 41% devolution in practice.
• Align with GST realities: Incorporate consumption-based tax dynamics, IGST settlement reforms, and strengthen coordination with the GST Council.
• Balance decentralisation with federalism: Strengthen local bodies through states, not at their expense. Maintain a clear constitutional hierarchy.
• Enhance transparency and accountability: Limit excessive reliance on Article 282 discretionary grants. Ensure parliamentary oversight and predictability.

Conclusion:

• The Sixteenth Finance Commission’s recommendations mark a paradigm shift from cooperative to controlled federalism, privileging central discretion over constitutional guarantees.
• While fiscal efficiency and decentralisation are important, they must not come at the cost of equity, predictability, and state autonomy.
• A balanced approach—anchored in constitutional principles and responsive to evolving fiscal realities—is essential to preserve India’s federal spirit and unity in diversity.