Why in the News?

• Hindi Diwas is observed every year on September 14 to commemorate the decision of the Constituent Assembly on September 14, 1949, regarding the official language of the Union.
• After prolonged and contentious debates, the Assembly adopted the compromise commonly known as the Munshi-Ayyangar formula.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Language Debate (Language Debate in Constituent Assembly, Hindi vs Linguistic Language Debate, Munshi-Ayyangar Formula, Constitutional Framework, Significance, etc.)

Background: The Language Question in the Constituent Assembly

• At Independence, India was a highly multilingual country, with Hindi being the most widely spoken language while numerous regional languages were used across different parts of the country.
• English, despite being spoken by less than 1% of Indians, remained the language of colonial administration, law and higher official communication.
• The central questions before the Constituent Assembly were:
  • Whether English should be replaced by an Indian language?
  • Which language should receive official status at the Union level?
  • Whether Hindi should replace English immediately or through a transition?
  • How could linguistic diversity be reconciled with national unity?
• The debate broadly divided members into Hindi-speaking representatives, representatives of non-Hindi-speaking regions and moderate Congress leaders.

Hindi versus Linguistic Diversity

• Hindi-speaking representatives largely argued that Hindi should become India's national language and replace English.
• Some members viewed a common language as essential for national integration. Seth Govind Das argued for one language and one script for the country.
• However, representatives from non-Hindi-speaking regions opposed the idea that linguistic uniformity was necessary for national unity. Shankarrao Deo of Bombay emphasised the principle of “unity in diversity”.
• Moderate leaders also recognised the practical difficulties involved in immediately replacing English. Concerns were raised regarding Hindi's limited vocabulary for modern administration, law and technical subjects.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad argued that a language should develop organically and become capable of expressing complex technical subjects before being made the sole language of administration.

Majority Rule versus Consensus

• The language controversy also raised an important constitutional question: Should the language issue be settled by a simple majority or through consensus?
• Supporters of Hindi argued that democratic principles required the majority view to prevail.
• Opponents warned that imposing a language through a majoritarian vote could alienate linguistic minorities. S.P. Mookerjee cautioned against using constitutional provisions to impose one language through coercion.
• Constituent Assembly President Rajendra Prasad similarly stressed that any language decision had to be acceptable to the country as a whole. A decision passed by a majority but rejected by a considerable section of society, he argued, could make implementation of the Constitution difficult.

The Munshi-Ayyangar Formula

• The eventual solution was the Munshi–Ayyangar formula, named after K.M. Munshi and N.Gopalaswamy Ayyangar, who were members of the seven-member Drafting Committee chaired by B.R. Ambedkar.
• The compromise did not designate Hindi as India's “national language.” Instead, it designated Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union.
• At the same time, English was permitted to continue for all official purposes for 15 years after the commencement of the Constitution.
• This arrangement was subsequently incorporated into Articles 343-351 in Part XVII of the Constitution.

Evolution of Hindi and English

• The constitutional arrangement envisaged a 15-year transition period, during which the Union could progressively increase the use of Hindi.
• The Constitution also recognised 14 other languages in the Eighth Schedule at the time.
• States were permitted to select a regional language or English for their internal administration, while English continued to play an important role in communication between States.
• However, when the 15-year transition period ended in 1965, Hindi had not become sufficiently widespread in Union government functioning.
• The prospect of replacing English with Hindi generated strong opposition in several non-Hindi-speaking States, particularly in southern India. Protests and violent agitations during the 1960s demonstrated the political sensitivity of the language question.
• Consequently, the original expectation of eventually replacing English with Hindi was modified.
• The Official Languages Act, 1963, provided for the continued use of English alongside Hindi for official purposes. Thus, the constitutional framework evolved into a dual-language arrangement rather than establishing Hindi as the exclusive language of Union administration.

Constitutional Framework

• The language provisions are primarily contained in Part XVII of the Constitution.
  • Article 343: Official language of the Union.
  • Articles 344-345: Language-related arrangements involving the Union and States.
  • Articles 346-347: Communication between States and recognition of languages.
  • Article 348: Language used in the Supreme Court, High Courts and legislation.
  • Article 350A: Facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage.
  • Article 350B: Special Officer for linguistic minorities.
  • Article 351: Directive for development of Hindi.
• Thus, India's constitutional language policy seeks to balance Hindi's development with multilingualism and linguistic rights.

Significance

• Hindi Diwas is significant not merely as a celebration of the Hindi language but as a reminder of the constitutional compromise that helped accommodate India's linguistic diversity.
• The Constituent Assembly's experience demonstrates that linguistic policy in a diverse democracy requires consensus-building rather than simple majoritarianism.
• It also illustrates the flexibility of the Indian constitutional system, where an initial transition plan could evolve in response to social and political realities.

Why in News?

• The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI) has proposed four key amendments to the insolvency resolution framework for personal guarantors to corporate debtors.
• The objective is to strengthen safeguards available to banks and other creditors and bring the process closer to the protections provided under the Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP).
• The proposals have gained significance following the controversy surrounding the repayment plan approved in the Subhash Chandra case.
• The case had raised questions over creditor protection, large haircuts and the effectiveness of the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Why the Subhash Chandra Case Matters?
• Four Key Amendments Proposed by IBBI
• Significance of the Proposal
• Conclusion 

Why the Subhash Chandra Case Matters?

• On August 25, a single bench of the National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) approved a repayment plan involving personal guarantor and Essel Group founder Subhash Chandra.
• Creditors with admitted claims of ₹22,006.57 crore were offered only around ₹6.25 crore.
• Banks alleged that certain non-bank entities involved in the process were associates or related parties of the guarantor.
• They alleged that these entities acted under Chandra’s influence to support a repayment plan involving an exceptionally large haircut. A special NCLT bench subsequently stayed the single-bench order.
• The episode triggered concerns regarding the effectiveness of the IBC, which seeks to facilitate time-bound resolution of insolvency, maximise asset value and improve recovery for creditors.

Four Key Amendments Proposed by IBBI:

• Bar related parties from voting:
  • IBBI proposes that a related-party creditor of the personal guarantor should not have voting rights while approving a repayment plan.
  • Under CIRP, a related party of the corporate debtor is prohibited from voting in the Committee of Creditors (CoC).
  • However, in personal-guarantor insolvency, the existing restriction applies to an “associate”, whose definition is narrower than “related party”.
  • For example, a company that habitually acts on the guarantor’s advice or instructions may qualify as a related party even if the guarantor does not own shares or formally control its board.
    • Such an entity may nevertheless fall outside the narrower definition of an associate.
  • Significance: The change seeks to prevent conflict of interest, indirect influence and strategic voting by entities connected with the guarantor.
• Scrutiny of avoidance transactions:
  • IBBI proposes that the resolution professional (RP) should examine, during the resolution process itself, whether the guarantor was involved in -
    • Preferential transactions
    • Undervalued transactions
    • Extortionate credit transactions
  • The RP would have to place the findings before creditors before they vote on the repayment plan and initiate legal proceedings with their approval.
  • At present, unlike CIRP, the personal-guarantor framework does not require the RP to undertake such an examination before the repayment plan is put to vote.
  • Significance: This would help identify possible asset diversion, preferential treatment of creditors and fraudulent or value-diminishing transactions before creditors decide on a repayment proposal.
• Mandatory independent asset valuation:
  • The proposed framework requires the RP to appoint a registered valuer to determine fair value of the guarantor’s assets; and realisable value of those assets.
  • The valuation report would be provided to creditors along with the repayment plan.
  • This would enable creditors to assess -
    • Adequacy of available security;
    • Viability of the repayment plan;
    • Potential recovery from the guarantor’s assets; and
    • Whether accepting the repayment plan is commercially preferable to initiating bankruptcy proceedings.
• Record creditors’ commercial rationale:
  • Currently, in personal-guarantor cases, resolution professionals primarily record voting tallies, without adequately documenting the reasoning behind creditors’ decisions.
  • IBBI proposes that minutes of creditors’ meetings should capture -
    • Detailed deliberations;
    • Objections and assessments;
    • Reasons for approving or rejecting the repayment plan; and
    • The commercial rationale behind the decision.
  • Where the proposed repayment is substantially lower than either the admitted claims or the estimated realisable value of assets, creditors would specifically have to explain why accepting the plan is preferable to commencing bankruptcy proceedings. 

Significance of the Proposal:

• The proposals seek to reinforce the core principles of the IBC - Creditor protection → Transparency → Accountability → Value maximisation → Informed commercial decision-making.
• They also seek to reduce the possibility of connected entities influencing insolvency outcomes -
  • Improving due diligence regarding the guarantor’s financial affairs, and
  • Ensuring that creditors base decisions on objective recovery prospects.

Conclusion:

• The proposed amendments can strengthen the credibility of personal-guarantor insolvency proceedings by ensuring that voting is free from conflicts of interest, assets are independently valued, questionable transactions are scrutinised and creditors’ decisions are properly reasoned.
• Overall, the reforms aim to ensure that a repayment plan represents a genuine and commercially justified resolution rather than a mechanism for disproportionately large haircuts at the expense of creditors.

About Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple:

• Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple, also called Arulmigu Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple, is a historic Hindu temple located on the southern bank of the Vaigai River in the temple city of Madurai, Tamil Nadu.
• The temple is dedicated to the goddess Meenakshi, a form of Parvati; her consort Sundareswarar, a form of Shiva; and her brother Alagar, a form of Vishnu.
• The temple is theologically significant, as it represents a confluence of the Shaivism, Shaktism, and Vaishnavism denominations of Hinduism.
• History:
  • It was built during the Pandya reign by Kulasekarer Pandya.
  • According to historical findings, the creation of this temple can be traced back to early A.D.
  • There are mentions of this temple in the songs of the great Hindu Saint Thirugnanasambandar, who lived during the 7th century.
  • It is also said that during the 12th or 13th century, at the time of Islamic conquest, this temple was destroyed to an extent.
  • However, later it was restored to its present structure. It was later expanded during the rule of Thirumalai Nayak (1623-55 AD). During this time, the present structure of the temple came into being.
• Architecture:
  • It is a finest example of the Dravidian style of architecture.
  • The oldest gopuram is the eastern one, built by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan during 1216-1238.
  • The west tower (gopuram) of the temple is the model on which the Tamil Nadu State Emblem is based.
  • The temple has four entrances, while the entrance on the Eastern side being the main temple entrance.
  • There are several corridors, and halls such as Aayirankaal (1000-pillared hall), Kilikoondu-mandapam, Golu-mandapam, and Pudu-mandapam, and shrines inside the temple. The corridors and pillars are adorned with wonderful artwork.
  • The Thousand Pillar Hall contains 985 (instead of 1000) carved pillars. It was built by Ariyanatha Mudaliar in 1569 and currently houses a museum with artifacts collected from Madurai from the 8th century onwards.
  • There are the Musical Pillars outside this hall towards the west. Each pillar produces a different musical note when struck.
  • The temple is an architectural wonder with an estimated 33,000 sculptures in the temple.

About Willingdon Island:

• It is a man-made island in the city of Kochi, Kerala.
• It is one of the largest man-made islands in India.
• History:
  • The island was created in 1936 by dredging the soil from the Vembanad Lake, which is the largest lake in Kerala.
  • The aim was to create a deep-water port that could accommodate large ships and vessels and to improve the trade and commerce of Kochi.
  • The project was initiated by Lord Willingdon, the British Viceroy of India, who also gave his name to the island.
  • Designed and created by the harbour engineer Sir Robert Bristow, it is today a massive commercial centre in Kochi.
• Apart from its commercial significance, Willingdon Island also hosts several important institutions and facilities.
  • The Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy is headquartered here.
  • It is also home to the Central Institute of Fisheries Technology and the Port of Kochi.
• The island is connected to the mainland Kochi by the Venduruthy Bridge.

Who was Lord Willingdon (1931 – 1936)?

• He was a British administrator who served in several high offices of the British Empire.
• Positions held in India:
  • Governor of Bombay: 1913–1918
  • Governor of Madras: 1919–1924
  • Viceroy and Governor-General of India: 1931–1936
• He served as 22nd Viceroy and Governor-General of India from 1931 to 1936.
• Major events during his tenure:
  • He succeeded Lord Irwin.
  • His tenure coincided with the Civil Disobedience Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.
  • Gandhi attended the Second Round Table Conference (1931) in London shortly after Willingdon assumed office.
  • After the failure of the conference, the Civil Disobedience Movement resumed, and the British government adopted a stricter policy toward nationalist leaders.
  • The Communal Award (1932), introduced by British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, was announced during his tenure.
  • The Poona Pact (1932) between Mahatma Gandhi and B. R. Ambedkar also took place during this period.
  • The Government of India Act, 1935, an important constitutional reform that introduced provincial autonomy, was enacted during his tenure.

About Planet Mercury:

• It is the smallest planet in our solar system and the nearest to the Sun.
• It is one of the four terrestrial (rocky) planets, along with Venus, Earth, and Mars.
• As the closest planet to the Sun, it experiences extreme temperature variations at its surface, from about +450ºC (day) down to –180ºC (night).
  • However, Mercury is not the hottest planet; Venus has the highest average surface temperature because of its thick atmosphere and strong greenhouse effect.
• It has permanently shadowed regions at its poles that never see sunlight and thus enables ice to exist on its floor.
• Mercury’s ancient, cratered surface shows signs of past volcanic and tectonic activity and is heavily weathered by the harsh space environment.
• The planet has huge impact basins, including the Caloris Basin, one of the largest impact features in the solar system.
• Mercury has a large iron-rich core, which occupies a substantial portion of the planet's interior.
• Its closeness to the Sun and its smallness make it the most elusive of the planets visible to the unaided eye.
• NASA's MESSENGER spacecraft became the first spacecraft to orbit Mercury, entering orbit in 2011 and studying the planet until 2015.
• The BepiColombo mission, a joint mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA), is studying Mercury and is expected to enter orbit in 2026.

About Celiac Disease:

• Celiac disease is an autoimmune disease that causes the body to react to a protein called gluten.
  • Gluten is a protein found in wheat, barley, rye, and other grains.
  • It may also be in other products like vitamins and supplements, hair and skin products, toothpastes, and lip balm.
• When people with celiac disease eat gluten, it triggers an abnormal response from your immune system.
• The immune system attacks the gluten in digestive system, causing inflammation.
• This inflammation damages the small intestine.
• The damage may prevent body from absorbing vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients from the food.
• Without treatment, celiac disease can lead to malabsorption and malnutrition.
• Malnutrition has many serious side effects, especially in children. Children with celiac disease may have growth and development delays.
• The condition is also known as celiac sprue, nontropical sprue, or gluten-sensitive enteropathy.
• What Causes Celiac Disease?
  • The exact cause of celiac disease is not known.
  • Research suggests that celiac disease only happens in people who have certain genes and eat food that contains gluten.
  • Researchers are studying other factors that may play a role in causing the disease.
• Treatment:
  • The only treatment for celiac disease is strict adherence to a gluten-free diet for life.
  • Sticking with a gluten-free diet will treat or prevent many of the symptoms and other health problems caused by celiac disease.
  • In most cases, it can also heal damage in the small intestine and prevent more damage.

About Tso Kar Lake:

• Tso Kar, meaning “White Lake” in Ladakhi, is a high-altitude salt lake located in the Rupshu Valley of Ladakh.
• It is the smallest of the three prominent lakes in the region, alongside Pangong Tso and Tso Moriri.
• The lake's name derives from the white salt deposits that fringe its shores, remnants of its saline nature.
• The Tso Kar basin includes both Tso Kar Lake and Startsapuk Tso (a nearby freshwater lake), creating a rare wetland system.
• It experiences extreme winters with temperatures falling below -40 °C, while summers see a maximum of 30°C.
• The nomads, commonly known as Khampas, inhabit the Tso Kar area, and they make a living here by collecting the salt from the banks of Tso Kar Lake and selling it to the regions nearby.
• The lake is surrounded by marshlands, which host different types of birds. Some of these are Brahmi Ducks, bar-headed geese, and great crested grebe.
• The most commonly spotted birds at the lake, though, are the black-necked cranes, which visit the lake to lay eggs.
• Mammals like Kianga, the largest of the wild asses, can also be spotted. The area surrounding the lake is also home to ibex, snow leopards, and snow foxes.
• Ramsar Site: In 2020, Tso Kar was recognized as a Wetland of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention, highlighting its ecological significance.

About Malabari Goat:

• Malabari also known as Tellicherry or Cutch are native to Kerala.
• These goats are reared for milk and meat and their skin is popular in the tanning industry.
• Milk Yield: The milk yield ranges from 0.5 to 1.5 litres a day with an average of 90 kg in a lactation period of 178 days. 
• Adaptability: It exhibits exceptional adaptability to humid tropical stressors.
• The main threat to this goat is the invasion of Boer goats and also goats from other parts of the country to the breeding tract of Malabari resulting in the dilution of the breed.

Key Highlights of the study:

• These Malabari goats belong to a rare maternal genetic group found in only about 3% of domestic goats globally. 
• The goats were placed in mitochondrial haplogroup B1, a relatively uncommon lineage among domestic goats. 
• It also showed close maternal genetic relationships with goats from Oman, Arabia and Gujarat.

About Java Sea:

• It is a portion of the western Pacific Ocean situated between the islands of Java and Borneo.
• It is bordered by Borneo (Kalimantan) on the north, the southern end of Makassar Straiton the northeast, Celebes and the Flores and Bali seas on the east, Java on the south, the Sunda Straits on the southwest and Sumatra on the west.
• It forms part of the Sunda Shelf, a shallow part of the continental shelf of Southeast Asia.
• The Java Sea experiences a typical monsoon climate.
• It is home to several protected national parks such as Ujung Kulon and Karimunjawa.
• Resources: It is home to a wealth of marine life, as well as petroleum and natural gas deposits that are instrumental to Indonesia's export economy.