About Punatsangchhu-II Hydroelectric Project:

• It is a run-of-the-river hydroelectric power project.
• Location: It is located in Bhutan on the right bank of the Punatsangchhu River.
• The project is being developed under an Inter-Government Agreement (IGA) between the Royal Government of Bhutan and the Government of India.
• It is funded by the Government of India (GoI).

Key Facts about Punatsangchhu-I Hydroelectric Project:

• It is a 2GW run-of-the-river hydroelectric power project.
• Location: It is located in Bhutan on the left bank of Punatsangchhu River.
• The project is being developed by Punatsangchhu I Hydroelectric Project Authority, an entity formed under a bilateral agreement signed by the Bhutanese government and the Government of India (GoI) in 2007.
• It is funded by the Government of India (GoI).

About Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) Technology:

• It is an advanced air-breathing propulsion system using a solid fuel gas generator.
• Working:
  • It uses solid Fuel instead of liquid fuel that makes the system simpler, safer, and easier to store and transport.
  • Unlike conventional rockets, SFDR does not carry an oxidiser, making it lighter and more efficient.
  • SFDR provides sustained thrust over a longer duration and allows thrust modulation during flight.
  • The SFDR system allows missiles to fly faster, farther and remain manoeuvrable throughout their flight, unlike conventional rocket-powered missiles.
• It has been developed by Defence Research and Development Laboratory (DRDL), Hyderabad in collaboration with other DRDO laboratories.
• Significance of Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet (SFDR) Technology
  • It significantly enhances long-range air-to-air missiles by providing sustained propulsion throughout much of the missile’s flight.
  • It places India into an elite league of nations possessing this technology that enables developing long-range air-to-air missiles to give tactical edge over the adversaries.

What is Ramjet?

• It is a propulsion system that relies on the missile’s high forward speed to compress incoming air, eliminating the need for a compressor and enabling efficient high-speed flight.

About Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Location: It is located in
• Vegetation: It has mixed deciduous forests.
• The Pakhal Wildlife Sanctuary houses the Pakhal Lake which was excavated on the orders of King Ganapati Deva of the Kakatiya empire in 1213 AD.
• Flora: It consists of bamboo, teak, and diverse flora, including Terminalia, Pterocarpus, and Mohua. 
• Fauna: Leopard, wild boar, panthers, hyenas, sloth bear, chital, mountain gazelle, blackbuck etc.

Key Facts about Dicliptera pakhalica

• It is a flowering plant species, that belongs to the Acanthaceae family.
• Habitat: The plant was found growing along stream banks and rocky areas.
• It flowers between November and January, with fruiting extending from December to March. 
• The species occurs in association with other native plants such as Tarenna asiatica, Eranthemum purpurascens, Ruellia prostrata and Mallotus philippensis, among others.

About PM VIKAS Scheme:

• It is a Central Sector Scheme.
• It focuses on socio-economic empowerment of minority communities.
• It aims to ensure inclusive growth for not only the minority and artisan communities but also for the youth and women. 
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Minority Affairs
• Objectives of PM VIKAS Scheme:
  • Skill Development: To build capacity of minority communities through targeted interventions by providing skill training support in need-based courses and ensuring employment.
  • Cultural Preservation: To preserve and promote the cultural heritage including traditional arts and craft forms by propagation of literature/ documents/ manuscripts and showcasing their unique ICH.
  • Educational Support: To provide formal education and certification up to 8th, 10th, and 12th through open schooling to school dropouts from minority communities.
  • Leadership and Entrepreneurship: To empower women from minority communities and instil confidence amongst them by providing leadership and entrepreneurship support.
• Key Features of PM VIKAS Scheme:
  • The National Minorities Development & Finance Corporation (NMDFC) has been given the responsibility of providing finance to the communities. 
  • School dropouts are given formal education as well as certification.
  • The Export Promotion Council for Handicrafts provides market linkages in order to provide livelihood opportunities for beneficiaries. 
  • The ‘Hub and Spoke’ model is used to establish Vishwakarma Villages to support the artisans and their crafts.

About Armenia:

• Location: It is a landlocked country, located in the south of Caucasus mountain range.
• Bordering Countries: It is bounded by Georgia in the north, Azerbaijan in the east, Iran in the southeast and Turkey in the west. 
• Capital:
• Geographical Features of Armenia:
  • Terrain: The Lesser (or Little) Caucasus Mountains dominate much of Armenia’s landscape. 
  • Highest Peak: Mount Aragats
  • Climate: Highland continental, hot summers, cold winter climate.
  • Rivers:  Aras, Hrazdan, Arpa, and Vorotan, rivers which provide hydropower and irrigation facilities to the country.
  • Lakes: Lake Sevan is the largest lake of Armenia.
  • Natural resources: Small deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, bauxite

About Myoglobin:

• It is found predominantly in striated muscle tissue, namely skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle.
  • Specifically, it is in the cytoplasm of cardiac myocytes and the sarcoplasm of oxidative skeletal muscle fibers.
• It encodes a single polypeptide chain with one oxygen binding site.
• It is one of the members of the globin superfamily, which also includes hemoglobin. It often gets compared structurally and functionally to hemoglobin.
  • Hemoglobin has four polypeptide chains and four oxygen binding sites.
• Composition: It is made of amino acids, iron and other molecules that work together to hold onto oxygen.
• Functions of Myoglobin:
  • Transports Oxygen: It transports oxygen from bloodstream to your muscles when they need it to convert stored energy into movements.
  • It serves as a sensitive indicator of cellular damage when detected in urine or plasma.
  • It serves as a buffer of intracellular oxygen concentrations and as an oxygen reservoir in muscle. 
  • Enzymatic functions: It is necessary for the decomposition of bioactive nitric oxide to nitrate. The removal of nitric oxide enhances mitochondrial respiration.
  • Remove reactive oxygen species: It can do this by interacting with fatty acids.

Why in news?

The Delhi High Court has issued notice on a PIL questioning whether the law can mandate the destruction of viable frozen embryos instead of allowing their donation to infertile couples, even when all parties consent.

The plea challenges provisions of the Assisted Reproductive Technology (Regulation) Act, 2021 and its Rules, which allow embryos to be created using donor sperm and eggs but prohibit donating unused frozen embryos to another couple for reproductive use.

Under the existing framework, unused frozen embryos can be stored for up to 10 years. After that, they must either be donated for research or be “allowed to perish”, but cannot be transferred to another infertile couple. The plea argues that forcing viable embryos to perish is ethically irrational when willing recipient couples exist.

The petition questions why the law permits some forms of non-genetic parenthood, such as donor sperm or eggs, while blocking embryo donation, calling this inconsistency a possible legislative oversight.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• What the Law Allows?
• How the prohibition works?
• Fresh vs frozen embryos: the core contradiction
• The constitutional challenge to the ART law
• Why the case matters?

What the Law Allows?

• The Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) Act, 2021 permits altruistic donation of sperm and eggs under regulated conditions.
• It also allows donor-assisted IVF, including double-donor IVF, where embryos created from donor sperm and donor eggs are implanted in a commissioning couple.
• In donor-assisted and double-donor IVF, the child has no genetic link with either parent. The law explicitly recognises and permits this form of non-genetic parenthood.
• What the law prohibits - Despite allowing donor-based embryo creation, the law does not permit the donation of surplus frozen embryos to another infertile couple for reproductive use.
• Why surplus embryos exist - IVF procedures typically create multiple embryos to improve pregnancy success rates. Not all embryos are implanted, and many remain cryopreserved when couples decide not to pursue further pregnancies.
• Where the restriction applies - It is at this post-IVF stage — when embryos remain unused but viable — that the law restricts their transfer to other couples, limiting their fate to storage, research use, or eventual destruction.

How the prohibition works?

• The law does not expressly ban “embryo adoption”, but the restriction arises from how multiple provisions of the ART Act and its Rules operate together.
• Embryos tied to the original couple - Clinics are required to preserve unused embryos only for the commissioning couple. They are prohibited from transferring these embryos to any other person or couple.
• Limited scope for embryo transfer - Embryo transfer is allowed only when the same couple seeks to use its own embryos for personal reproductive purposes, and that too with regulatory approval. Any third-party use is barred.
• Mandatory end-point after 10 years - Under Section 28(2), embryos can be stored for a maximum of 10 years. After this period, embryos must either be:
  • allowed to perish, or
  • donated to registered research institutions, with consent.
    • There is no legal pathway for donating embryos to another infertile couple for pregnancy.
  • Consent forms reinforce the restriction - The prescribed consent forms ask couples to choose the fate of embryos in situations like death or separation. However, donation to another couple is not listed as an option, effectively closing that route.

Fresh vs frozen embryos: the core contradiction

• The petition highlights a key inconsistency in how the law treats fresh and frozen embryos.
• What the law allows with fresh embryos - The ART Act permits embryos created using donor sperm and donor eggs to be transferred to a commissioning couple. In such cases, the child has no genetic link to the parents, which the law explicitly accepts.
• Biological equivalence of frozen embryos - Frozen embryos, once thawed, are biologically identical to fresh embryos and are routinely used in IVF treatments with similar success rates.
• Different legal treatment - Despite this equivalence, frozen embryos are barred from being transferred to another couple for reproductive use. They are treated as non-transferable once cryopreserved.
• Alleged ‘double standard’ - The plea argues that while the law accepts genetic non-linearity in fresh donor embryos, it rejects the same principle for existing frozen embryos — creating what the petitioner calls a legal and ethical inconsistency.

The constitutional challenge to the ART law

• The petition questions the validity of the embryo donation ban on constitutional grounds, invoking Articles 14 and 21.
• Article 14: equality before law
  • The plea argues that the law makes an arbitrary distinction between couples allowed to receive fresh donor embryos and those barred from receiving frozen embryos.
  • In both cases, the child has no genetic link to the parents.
  • It contends that this classification lacks an intelligible differentia and has no rational link to the objective of the law, thereby violating Article 14.
• Article 21: reproductive autonomy
  • The petition places reproductive choice within the right to life, dignity and privacy.
  • Decisions on whether and how to have a child through assisted reproduction, it argues, are part of individual decisional autonomy.
  • Blocking embryo donation intrudes into this freedom.
• Compulsory destruction as a core concern
  • A central objection is the law’s requirement that unused embryos be “allowed to perish” after 10 years if not used by the original couple.
  • The plea calls this a “legislative absurdity”, since viable embryos must be destroyed even when willing and consenting recipient couples exist.

Why the case matters?

• The petition highlights the broader social and ethical stakes of the embryo donation debate.
• Scale of infertility in India - Infertility affects an estimated 27–30 million couples in India, making access to assisted reproductive options a significant public health issue.
• Limits of existing options - IVF is costly and often requires multiple cycles, while traditional adoption is marked by long waiting periods and procedural hurdles. This leaves many couples with few viable choices.
• Embryo donation as an alternative - The plea argues that regulated embryo donation could offer a middle path—allowing pregnancy and childbirth for couples who cannot conceive through other means.
• Equity and access concerns - It also flags inequality: wealthier couples can seek embryo donation abroad, while others cannot. This, the petition argues, turns reproductive choice into a function of economic privilege rather than medical need.

Why in news?

The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026, notified by the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, will come into force on April 1, 2026, replacing the 2016 framework.

The new rules comprehensively overhaul waste management by urban and rural local bodies, emphasising waste reduction, reuse, segregation, and at-source processing.

By discouraging dependence on large landfills and dumping yards, the rules aim to promote decentralised, sustainable, and circular approaches to managing India’s growing solid waste challenge.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Rationale Behind the Introduction of New Rules
• How Are the 2026 Rules Different from the 2016 Rules
• Impact on Bulk Generators Including Housing Societies
• Implications of SWM Rules, 2026 for Landfills

Rationale Behind the Introduction of New Rules

• As per Central Pollution Control Board’s 2023-24 data, India is facing a severe solid waste management crisis:
  • Annual waste generation: over 620 lakh tonnes
  • Daily waste generation: around 1.85 lakh tonnes
  • Daily collection: 1.79 lakh tonnes
  • Daily processing/treatment: 1.14 lakh tonnes
  • Daily landfilling: 39,629 tonnes
• Despite the Solid Waste Management Rules, 2016, large quantities of waste continue to be poorly segregated and dumped in landfills, leading to environmental and public health risks.
• To address this, the 2026 Rules aim to:
  • Reduce dependence on landfills
  • Improve segregation and accountability
  • Shift towards a circular economy, where waste is treated as a resource
  • Strengthen compliance through penalties and digital monitoring

How Are the 2026 Rules Different from the 2016 Rules?

• While retaining the core principles of segregation, recycling, and scientific disposal introduced in 2016, the 2026 Rules introduce stricter obligations, expanded segregation, and stronger enforcement mechanisms.
• Waste Hierarchy Introduced
  • The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026 lay down a clear waste hierarchy that prioritises prevention and minimisation of waste over disposal.
  • The hierarchy follows the sequence of prevention, reduction, reuse, recycling, recovery, with disposal permitted only as a last resort, signalling a move away from landfill-dependent waste management.
• Four-Way Waste Segregation
  • To operationalise this hierarchy, the rules introduce a four-way segregation system, expanding the earlier wet–dry classification.
    • Wet waste: biodegradable household waste
    • Dry waste: recyclable materials such as paper, plastic, metal, and glass
    • Sanitary waste: items like sanitary napkins, tampons, and condoms
    • Special-care waste: hazardous or sensitive items including medicines, paint cans, bulbs, and tube lights
  • Urban local bodies are mandated to support segregation through appropriate infrastructure.
  • This includes green bins for wet waste, blue bins for dry waste, and red bins for sanitary waste, particularly in public toilets where such waste is generated.
• Enhanced Responsibilities of Bulk Waste Generators
  • Definition of Bulk waste Generators - Entities meeting any one of the following:
    • Built-up area of 20,000 sq m or more
    • Water consumption of 40,000 litres/day or more
    • Waste generation of 100 kg/day or more
  • Covered entities include:
    • Residential societies and gated communities
    • Malls, hotels, restaurants
    • Colleges, universities, hostels
    • Government departments and large townships
  • New obligations:
    • Mandatory segregation at source
    • Hand over recyclable waste to authorised entities
    • All gated communities, RWAs, hotels and restaurants, and institutions with over 5,000 sq m area must comply within one year
  • The 2016 Rules had weaker enforcement for bulk generators.
• Polluter Pays Principle and Environmental Compensation
  • Environmental compensation for:
    • Failure to register on the centralised portal
    • False reporting or forged documents
    • Improper waste handling and segregation
  • Higher landfill fees for mixed or unsegregated waste
  • Landfilling made financially disincentivising
  • Role of CPCB: To frame detailed guidelines on compensation and penalties.
  • This marks a shift from advisory compliance to deterrence-based regulation.
• Centralised Tracking and Digital Monitoring System
  • Introduction of a centralised online portal to track: Waste generation; Collection; Transportation; Processing; Disposal.
  • Mandatory registration for:
    • Bulk waste generators
    • Urban and rural local bodies
    • Waste transporters and processors
    • Waste pickers
    • Railways, airports, SEZs and large authorities
  • This addresses data gaps and weak monitoring seen under the 2016 Rules.

Impact on Bulk Generators Including Housing Societies

• Under the new rules, bulk waste generators are brought under an extended responsibility regime, similar to the Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) applicable to manufacturers of electronic and plastic products.
• This framework will become operational once urban local bodies (ULBs) notify by-laws by March 2027 incorporating provisions of the new rules.
• Mandatory Registration and Certification-Based Compliance
  • Bulk generators—such as housing societies, colleges, large townships, commercial complexes and institutions—will be required to:
    • Register on a centralised online portal
    • Submit mandatory waste accounting data
    • Follow certification-based compliance, replacing the earlier self-declaration model
  • This system introduces verifiable accountability for waste generation and handling.
• Segregation and On-Site Waste Processing Obligations
  • Mandatory four-way segregation of waste (wet, dry, sanitary and special-care)
  • Strong emphasis on at-source processing of wet waste, preferably through:
    • On-site composting, or
    • Other approved decentralised alternatives
• Alternative Compliance through Certification
• Where on-site processing is not feasible, bulk generators may procure compliance certificates from Urban local bodies, or Authorised waste processing facilities.
• These certificates will serve as proof that waste has been scientifically processed.
• Annual Reporting and Penalties
  • Annual returns to be filed by June 30 each year
  • Returns must detail: Quantity of waste generated; Mode of processing; Certificates procured.
  • Non-compliance will attract environmental compensation

Implications of SWM Rules, 2026 for Landfills

• The Solid Waste Management Rules, 2026 seek to end India’s long-standing dependence on landfills.
• Under the new framework, landfills are to be used only as a last option, and exclusively for non-usable, non-recyclable, and non-energy-recoverable waste.
• This marks a decisive shift away from dumping mixed waste, which has historically led to large landfill mounds and severe environmental contamination.
• Mapping and Remediation of Legacy Landfills
  • All urban local bodies (ULBs) are mandated to:
    • Map existing legacy landfills and dumpsites by October 31, 2026
    • Prepare time-bound action plans for their remediation
  • Remediation methods include:
    • Bioremediation: use of bacteria and microbes to reduce waste volume and odour
    • Biomining: scientific excavation of old waste to recover usable materials and reduce landfill mass
  • These measures aim to reclaim land, reduce pollution, and eliminate long-standing garbage mountains.
• Energy Recovery from High-Calorific Waste
  • The new rules mandate that waste with a calorific value of 1,500 kcal/kg or more must be diverted for energy recovery
  • Methods include:
    • Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) production
    • Co-processing in cement kilns and thermal power plants
  • High-calorific waste includes plastic waste, agricultural residues, and kitchen waste, which can substitute conventional fossil fuels.
  • Industries have been assigned progressive targets for replacing solid fossil fuels with RDF:
    • 6% substitution initially
    • Scaling up to 15% substitution within six years
  • This creates assured demand for waste-derived fuels and strengthens the waste-to-energy ecosystem.