Why in news?

A deadly blast near the Red Fort Metro Station in Delhi on November 10 killed 13 people and injured several others, likely caused by an improvised explosive device (IED). While official details are still emerging, experts explain that IEDs are dangerous, easily assembled weapons capable of causing mass harm.

They emphasise that IEDs reflect the darkest impulses of human intent and highlight the urgent need for a comprehensive national counter-IED strategy to prevent future attacks.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Why Terrorists Rely on IEDs?
• How IEDs Reveal the ‘Signature’ of the Terror Group?
• Declining Patterns in IED Attacks Across Conflict Zones
• Sources of Explosives: A Persistent Cat-and-Mouse Battle
• Toward a National Counter-IED Policy Framework

Why Terrorists Rely on IEDs?

• IEDs remain the preferred weapon for terrorists because they are low-risk, high-impact, and easy to assemble using widely available materials.
• An IED typically consists of a container, battery, detonator, switch, and explosives, with added fragments like ball bearings or nails to increase lethality.
• Except for the detonator, most components can be improvised from everyday items.
• While most groups use commercially made detonators for reliability, some extremists have experimented with unstable homemade versions.
• Overall, the ease of fabrication and devastating potential make IEDs a go-to tool for terror attacks.

How IEDs Reveal the ‘Signature’ of the Terror Group?

• IED components often carry identifiable patterns that help investigators trace the group behind an attack.
• The type of explosive used — military-grade like RDX/TNT, commercial explosives, or homemade mixtures such as ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil) — offers key clues, since terror groups usually stick to familiar materials and methods.
• The triggering mechanism also narrows down suspects. Whether the device is command-operated, timer-based, or victim-operated (like suitcase or transistor bombs) reflects the group’s typical modus operandi.
• Additionally, the method of placement — vehicle-borne, suicide-borne, or person-borne — further refines the analysis.
• Together, these elements form a distinct “bomb signature,” enabling agencies to link an attack to likely perpetrators.
• The National Bomb Data Centre of the NSG maintains detailed blast records and provides expert assessments to support such investigations.

Declining Patterns in IED Attacks Across Conflict Zones

• IED attacks in India have shown a steady decline across major conflict areas, including Jammu & Kashmir, Naxal-affected regions, and the hinterland.
• In J&K, recent blasts have often used a mix of military-grade, commercial, and homemade explosives — as seen in the 2019 Pulwama attack, which combined RDX from Pakistan with locally sourced commercial explosives and fertiliser-based materials.
• Drone-dropped magnetic IEDs from Pakistan, once a concern in J&K and Punjab, have also reduced significantly.
• In Naxal-affected regions, IED incidents have sharply fallen, with most devices relying on commercially available explosives.
• In the rest of the country, only a few significant incidents have occurred, such as the 2024 Bengaluru Rameshwaram Café blast using low-grade explosives.
• Overall, jihadi groups now increasingly mix different explosive types to assemble devices, even as the overall frequency of attacks declines.

Sources of Explosives: A Persistent Cat-and-Mouse Battle

• Military-grade materials largely enter India through Pakistan-backed channels — via drones or human couriers.
• Despite stronger border surveillance, agencies must intercept every attempt, while handlers need only one success.
• This creates an unending cat-and-mouse dynamic requiring continuous technological upgrades and vigilance.
• Commercial Explosives: Pilferage from Licensed Supply Chains
  • Commercial explosives and detonators used in mining, construction and road projects are regulated by the Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organization (PESO).
  • Although PESO enforces strong safety standards, its limited manpower leads to gaps at the last-mile.
  • In insurgency-prone zones, pilferage occurs through coercion or collusion with end-users, making enforcement a challenge.
• Homemade Explosives: Misuse of Precursor Chemicals
  • Terrorists often extract explosive material from precursor chemicals and commonly available substances such as fertilisers.
  • While Indian fertilisers include safeguards that make “cooking” difficult, the threat persists due to the wide availability of precursor items.
  • Experts recommend identifying such chemicals clearly and mandating vendors to report bulk purchases to local police.
  • This layered sourcing — border smuggling, local pilferage, and chemical extraction — underscores the need for tighter monitoring, inter-agency coordination, and proactive regulation.

Toward a National Counter-IED Policy Framework

• A comprehensive National Counter-IED Policy is urgently needed to unify strategy, clarify responsibilities, and strengthen coordination among all stakeholders involved in preventing and responding to explosive threats.
• The Red Fort blast appears to involve a nitrate-based mix, but speculating further is premature.
• The Nowgam police station explosion highlights critical gaps in safe handling.
  • Such blasts can occur either due to an embedded detonator accidentally triggering upon friction or because contaminated, confined ammonium nitrate detonates when exposed to sustained heat.
• The key lesson is clear: all recovered explosives, blast remnants, and devices must be “rendered safe” exclusively by trained Bomb Detection and Disposal Squads before any evidence collection begins.
• The account also underscores the exemplary actions of the Srinagar doctor-cop whose meticulous investigation dismantled a new terror module — a reminder of the critical role of skilled, alert personnel in counter-terror operations.

Context:

• The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 emphasises Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) as the basis for all future learning.
• Through the NIPUN Bharat Mission, this vision has shifted from focusing on inputs to prioritising measurable learning outcomes.
• As a result, foundational learning — stagnant for years — is now showing notable improvement, as seen in both government and independent assessments.
• However, a significant challenge remains: numeracy is consistently weaker than literacy. ASER 2024 highlights this gap — while 48.7% of Class 5 students can read fluently, only 30.7% can solve a basic division problem.
• Importantly, no State in India reports higher numeracy scores than literacy. This persistent disparity makes strengthening numeracy essential for achieving comprehensive foundational learning.

Why Numeracy Lags Behind: The Cumulative Nature of Math

• Mathematics is hierarchical — each new concept depends on mastering earlier ones.
• If foundational ideas like place value are not understood in early grades, students struggle later with addition, decimals, and more complex operations.
• Unlike language, partial understanding doesn’t allow progress in math, so gaps expand over time.
• Curriculum Progression vs. Learning Levels
  • Traditional syllabus-driven teaching moves ahead regardless of whether students have understood earlier concepts.
  • Evidence from Teaching at the Right Level (Pratham) shows that instruction must match the child’s learning level, not the textbook.
  • Without such alignment, most learners fall behind, widening learning disparities.
• Real-Life Application Gap
  • Research reveals a disconnect between classroom math and everyday problem-solving.
  • Students who perform well on school math tests struggle with market-based calculations.
  • Children familiar with real-world arithmetic (e.g., shop work) often cannot transfer these skills to classroom-style math problems.
  • This two-way gap underscores the need for integrated, practical learning.

Consequences of Weak Numeracy

• Poor foundational numeracy leads to difficulties in math and science, both of which have higher failure rates in board exams.
• Many students drop out in middle or secondary school not due to lack of interest, but because learning gaps make classroom teaching incomprehensible.
• Fear of math blocks access to higher education for many who cannot clear Class 10 or leave school earlier.

Way Forward

• Extend Foundational Interventions Beyond Class 3
  • The current FLN focus up to Class 3 is insufficient since 70% of Class 5 and over 50% of Class 8 students still cannot do basic division.
  • Extending interventions up to Class 8 — as successfully demonstrated in Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu — is essential to bridge learning gaps, especially after COVID-19 disruptions.
• Introduce FLN+ Skills for Higher Grades
  • Beyond foundational numeracy, upper primary children need fractions, decimals, percentages, ratios and integers to succeed in board exams and progress academically.
  • With most Class 5 students unable to do division, they also lack these higher-level skills — making FLN+ indispensable.
• Reform Pedagogy to Match Learning Levels
  • Teaching must shift from rigid, grade-based syllabi to activity-based, child-friendly methods used in FLN.
  • Instruction should be aligned with students’ learning levels, not just the curriculum, especially at higher grades where gaps widen sharply.
• Integrate Real-Life Problem-Solving
  • Classrooms should embed numeracy and literacy in real-life contexts.
  • Connecting learning to everyday situations strengthens comprehension, improves transfer of skills, and increases student engagement.

Why This Matters: Urgency for India’s Future

• The numeracy gap deepens as students advance through school and leads to:
  • poor learning outcomes,
  • high board exam failure rates,
  • rising dropouts, and
  • weakened employability and equity.
• The NIPUN Bharat Mission has proven that large-scale improvement is possible.
• The next step is to expand this progress to upper primary classes and FLN+, ensuring continuity of learning and preparing students for future academic and economic opportunities.

 Why in the News?

• The Supreme Court has issued a significant advisory opinion under Article 143 of the Constitution, responding to a Presidential reference triggered by a two-judge Bench judgment from April 2025 related to delays in assent to State Bills.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Court’s Advisory (Background, Scope of Questions, Key Takeaways, Issues, Way Forward)

Background to the Presidential Reference

• The Presidential reference arose due to the Supreme Court’s April 2025 judgment in State of Tamil Nadu vs. Governor of Tamil Nadu, which:

• Mandated a three-month timeline for Governors and the President to act on Bills,
• Declared such decisions judicially reviewable,
• Exercised Article 142 powers to grant “deemed assent” to several pending Tamil Nadu Bills.

• This ruling generated constitutional uncertainty, prompting the Union government to seek clarification on:

• Whether courts can prescribe timelines?
• Whether presidential inaction is justiciable?
• Whether the Supreme Court’s Article 142 powers can override constitutional provisions?

Scope of Questions Raised in the Reference

• The reference placed 14 constitutional questions before a Constitution Bench, primarily relating to:

• Interpretation of Article 200 and Article 201 regarding assent to State Bills,
• Whether courts can intervene before a Bill becomes law,
• The justiciability of delays,
• The permissible boundaries of Article 142.

• These questions went to the heart of India’s federal structure and the functional relationship among State legislatures, Governors, and the Union.

Key Takeaways from the Supreme Court’s Advisory Opinion

• The five-judge Bench delivered a comprehensive opinion, which reshapes constitutional understanding on several fronts.
• Governor’s Options Under Article 200
  • The Court clarified that a Governor has three constitutionally recognised choices when presented with a Bill:

• Assent,
• Reserve the Bill for Presidential consideration,
• Withhold assent and return the Bill to the legislature with observations.
  These options are explicitly grounded in the constitutional text.

• Discretion of the Governor
  • The Court held that the Governor enjoys discretion in choosing among these options and is not bound by the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers regarding assent-related decisions.
  • This interpretation marks a significant shift from earlier decisions such as Shamsher Singh (1974) and Nabam Rebia (2016), which emphasised the primacy of ministerial advice.
• Limited Justiciability

• Governor’s actions under Article 200 are generally not justiciable,
• However, in cases of “glaring prolonged and unexplained inaction”, courts may issue a limited mandamus directing the Governor to act,
• Courts cannot review the validity of the Governor/President’s decision before a Bill becomes law.

• No Judicial Timelines
  • A key reversal of the April 2025 judgment: the Court held that in the absence of constitutional timelines, the judiciary cannot prescribe time limits for Governors or the President to act on Bills.
• No ‘Deemed Assent’
  • The Court strongly rejected the concept of “deemed assent,” holding that the judiciary cannot substitute executive authority through Article 142. Assent-related decisions belong exclusively to the Governor or President.

Issues Arising from the Opinion

• Potential Undermining of Legislative Intent
  • The Court’s recognition of wide gubernatorial discretion contradicts earlier judicial positions and expert committee recommendations.
  • The Sarkaria Commission (1987) held that reserving Bills for the President should occur rarely, and only in cases of clear unconstitutionality.

• Earlier Supreme Court cases insisted that Governors act on ministerial advice, not independent discretion.
• The current opinion risks allowing Governors to delay or derail the legislative agenda of elected State governments.

• Concerns Over Lack of Timelines
  • The Punchhi Commission (2010) recommended a six-month limit for gubernatorial decisions.
  • The Supreme Court itself had earlier set non-textual timelines (e.g., in K.M. Singh, three months for Speakers to decide disqualification petitions).
  • Thus, critics argue that judicially crafted timelines can be constitutionally permissible when required to uphold democratic functioning.
  • The current advisory opinion rejects such purposive interpretation.

Way Forward

• While the Governor represents the Union and the ideal of national unity, federalism is a basic structure of the Constitution. Moving forward:

• Governors must exercise constitutional powers with responsible urgency,
• The Centre must ensure the office is not used to thwart State governments,
• Judicial oversight must remain available to prevent constitutional paralysis while respecting the separation of powers.

Context:

• India has replaced 29 fragmented labour laws with four consolidated Labour Codes—wages, social security, industrial relations, and occupational safety & health.
• The reform seeks to reduce regulatory complexity, encourage formalisation, and enhance ease of doing business, forming an institutional pillar for Viksit Bharat 2047.

Background and Rationale for Reform:

• Fragmented regulatory landscape:
  • Earlier labour regimes evolved without coordination, resulting in inconsistencies across definitions, thresholds, and state-level rules.
  • This generated ambiguity, compliance burden, and “interpretive fog”.
• Consolidation into four codes: Features of new labour codes -
  • Uniform definitions across states.
  • Written appointment letters mandatory.
  • Clearer rules for timely wage payments.
  • Recognition of gig and platform workers.
  • Updated health, safety, and working conditions.
  • National-level simplified compliance architecture.

Transforming the Business Environment:

• Closing the “Tax on Scale”:
  • Ambiguity earlier acted as a disincentive to growth.
  • Firms stayed small to avoid triggering new compliance thresholds, leading to “missing middle” phenomenon.
  • Uniform rules reduce uncertainty, enabling expansion across states.
• Enhancing ease of doing business:
  • Predictability matters more than subsidies.
  • Lower risk of accidental non-compliance will boost investor confidence.
  • Simplified registration, single licence, and unified national returns reduce administrative friction.

Promoting Formalisation and Labour-Market Efficiency:

• Strengthening formal employment:
  • Appointment letters and clear wage definitions discourage informal arrangements.
  • Improves worker retention, skill development, and productivity.
  • Better workforce planning for firms.
• Digital and platform economy inclusion:
  • Recognises gig and platform workers for the first time.
  • By opening pathways to social protection, the Codes reduce the disconnect between the structure of work and the structure of regulation.
  • This brings India in line with many OECD economies, better equipped to sustain innovation.
• Women’s labour-force participation: Relaxation of restrictions on night work with safety provisions, expanding economic opportunities and supporting inclusive growth.

Economic Logic - Lowering Transaction Costs:

• High transaction costs previously: Firms avoided hiring, formalisation, and expansion. Compliance complexity was a shadow tax on business.
• New compliance architecture: Clearer rules, online systems, and uniform standards reduce friction. Encourages formal economic behaviour and sustainable enterprise growth.

Institutional Importance:

• Earlier regime: Fragmented laws resulted in risk-averse, defensive firms.
• New regime: Coherent, predictable framework will lead to ambitious, growth-oriented behaviour.
• Institutions shape economic behaviour: Supports a modern, competitive labour market aligned with economic transformation goals.

Challenges Ahead:

• Implementation bottlenecks:
  • States must notify rules in harmony with the Centre.
  • Robust digital platforms required for registration and compliance.
  • Inspectorate reforms needed to prevent discretion-based enforcement.
  • Awareness gaps among MSMEs and workers.
• Transition management: Shift from legacy systems to new Codes may initially create confusion. Ensuring social protection coverage for gig/platform workers is a long-term challenge.

Way Forward:

• Strengthen state capacity to implement rules uniformly.
• Ensure seamless digital integration for registration, licensing, and compliance.
• Build awareness and training for MSMEs, start-ups, gig workers, and labour officers.
• Promote social security portability, especially for gig/platform workforce.
• Continuous feedback loops to refine Codes based on ground realities.
• Gender-sensitive infrastructure to support increased female labour participation.

Conclusion:

• India’s four Labour Codes mark a historic institutional shift, replacing outdated and fragmented statutes with a coherent, predictable, and modern labour framework.
• They promote formalisation, reduce compliance uncertainty, support women and gig workers, and strengthen the ease of doing business—key pillars for building a Viksit Bharat 2047.
• While successful implementation remains critical, the Codes lay a strong foundation for an inclusive, competitive, and resilient labour market that benefits both workers and entrepreneurs.

Context

• Walter Bagehot’s reminder that the British monarch has no veto and must even sign her own death-warrant underscores the democratic expectation that the nominal head of state functions without independent political will.
• This principle illuminates the contemporary debate over the role of the Indian Governor under Article 200, where ambiguity about discretion has repeatedly strained Centre–State relations.
• The Supreme Court’s recent advisory opinion attempts clarification, yet its implications reveal deeper tensions between constitutional design and political practice.

Historical Foundations and Constitutional Intent

• The Government of India Act, 1935 vested substantial discretionary power in Governors, including the ability to assent, withhold assent, or return Bills.
• The framers of the Indian Constitution consciously departed from this colonial model.
• During the evolution of draft Article 175, the Constituent Assembly removed references to discretion, signalling a commitment to a parliamentary system in which the Governor acts on the aid and advice of the Council of Ministers.
• This intended transformation placed the Governor as a figurehead akin to Bagehot’s constitutional monarch, with no personal political mandate.
• Yet practice has never fully aligned with this vision.
• Shifts in political alliances, party discipline, and the potential for partisan interference have kept the question of gubernatorial authority unresolved and often contentious.

Judicial Interpretation and the Expansion of Discretion

• The Supreme Court recently considered whether the Governor possesses implied discretion under Article 200 and whether timelines can be imposed for decisions on Bills.
• The Court affirmed that discretion exists in assenting, withholding, or reserving Bills, and concluded that mandatory timelines cannot be judicially prescribed. Judicial review is limited to cases of prolonged, unexplained, or indefinite delay.
• This stance reintroduces discretionary space that the framers had consciously excluded. The Court argued that the anti-defection law and strict party whips ensure unified legislative action, making it unlikely that a Bill could pass without cabinet support.
• Therefore, the Governor may need discretion if advice is unconstitutional or contrary to the text.
• However, this reasoning overlooks politically plausible scenarios where coalitions shift, and a new ministry may legitimately reconsider a Bill passed under a previous alliance.
• Constitutional advisor N. Rau noted such situations, cautioning against assumptions of stable legislative intent.
• Moreover, safeguards already exist: a Governor confronted with blatantly unconstitutional advice may act under Article 356 without relying on ministerial recommendation.

Political Realities and Institutional Friction

• Expansive discretion becomes problematic in a political context where Governors are often perceived as extensions of the Union executive.
• Soli Sorabjee’s criticism of the office becoming a consolation prize for burnt-out politicians highlights concerns about impartiality.
• When different parties control the Union and the State, the Governor’s actions, particularly strategic delays or reservations of Bills, can escalate tensions.
• Historical evidence shows repeated misuse of delays. Former Karnataka Chief Minister Ramakrishna Hegde documented that 74 Bills awaited presidential assent for years, with some pending for six to seven years.
• Such delays amount to a de facto veto, despite the Constitution providing none.

Risks of Over-Broad Discretion: Toward Gubernatorial Governance?

• By affirming implied discretion and placing many actions beyond judicial review, the Court’s opinion risks enabling a form of gubernatorial governance where unelected officers influence legislative outcomes.
• This development contradicts the democratic architecture in which the legislature and its accountable executive should dominate policy-making.
• Doctrinal uncertainty also emerges. The advisory opinion diverges from reasoning in the earlier Tamil Nadu case, potentially encouraging broader assertions of discretion unless constitutional amendments define tighter boundaries.
• A system that permits significant delays or unilateral gubernatorial decisions threatens the federal balance and weakens the authority of elected State governments.

A Path Forward: Timelines and Reduced Discretion

• A stable federal structure requires clearer limits on gubernatorial authority.
• Introducing constitutional timelines for assent would prevent obstruction through delay and enhance transparency.
• Reinforcing the principle that discretion exists only in the narrow exceptions envisaged by the framers would restore alignment with parliamentary conventions.
• Additionally, revisiting the mode of appointment, as recommended by multiple commissions, would mitigate perceptions of partisanship and strengthen institutional legitimacy.

Conclusion

• The relationship between the legislature and the constitutional head in a parliamentary system demands clarity, restraint, and respect for democratic accountability.
• Gubernatorial authority under Article 200 remains one of the most significant unresolved constitutional challenges in India.
• Without reforms, especially defined timelines and narrowed discretion, the risk persists that an office intended to be ceremonial will continue to shape legislation in ways neither envisioned by the framers nor conducive to healthy federalism.

About Brihadeeswarar Temple:

• It is a Hindu temple dedicated to Shiva located in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu.
• It is also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple and Rajarajesvaram.
• It is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of Dravidian architecture during the Chola period.
• It was built by emperor Raja Raja Chola I and completed in 1010 AD.
• It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the “Great Living Chola Temples”, with the other two being the Brihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Airavatesvara temple.
• Architecture:
  • The temple stands amidst fortified walls that were probably added in the 16th century.
  • ‘The vimanam (temple tower) is 216 ft (66 m) high and is the tallest in the world.
  • The Kumbam (the apex or the bulbous structure on the top) of the temple is carved out of a single rock and weighs around 80 tons.
  • The temple complex spans over 40 acres and is decorated with masses of sculptures and inscriptions that spotlight the era's devotion and craftsmanship.
  • There is a big statue of Nandi (sacred bull), carved out of a single rock measuring about 16 ft (4.9 m) long and 13 ft (4.0 m) high at the entrance.
  • The entire temple structure is made out of granite.

About African Grey Parrot:

• It is a medium-sized, dusty-looking gray bird.
• Scientific Name: Psittacus erithacus
• It is one of the most talented talking/mimicking birds on the planet.
• Habitat and Distribution:
  • African grey parrots are native to West and Central Africa.
  • They inhabit different types of lowland forest, including rainforest, woodlands, and wooded savannah.
  • They can be seen along forest edges and in clearings as well, and sometimes feeding in gardens and cultivated fields.
  • They are kept as pets in many parts of the world, and their popularity dates back centuries.
• Features:
  • It is a mottled grey-colored, medium-sized parrot.
  • It has a large black bill and white mask enclosing a yellow eye and has a striking red vent and tail.
  • Females have a pale gray crown with dark gray edges, a gray body, and scarlet tail feathers.
  • The male looks similar to the female but becomes darker with age.
  • Lifespan: 50+ years
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Endangered.

About Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the eastern region of Guwahati, Assam.
• It is in close proximity to the Mayong village that is renowned as the Black magic capital of India.
• This wildlife sanctuary was established in 1998 with a total area of 48.81 sq.km.
• The sanctuary consists of the Rajamayong Reserve Forest and Pobitora Reserve Forest.
• The region was once part of the vast floodplains of the Brahmaputra River and was known for its rich flora and fauna.
• History:
  • Pobitora became a reserved wooded area in the year of 1971 with the approval of the Government of Assam Tourism.
  • The Government of India included Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary with the association of a rhino breeding program named “Indian Rhino Vision 2020”.
  • The landscape is dominated by alluvial grasslands and dense patches of tall elephant grass.
• Flora:
  • 72% of Pabitora consists of the wet savannah of Arundo donax, Erianthus ravennae, Phragmites karka, Imperata cylindrica, and Saccharum spp.
  • Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is a major problem, especially to waterfowl, as it forms thick mats on the water surface.
• Fauna:
  • It is known for holding the highest density of Greater One Horned Rhinoceros in the country.
  • Besides rhinoceros, the other animals are leopard, wild boar, Barking deer, wild buffalo, etc.
  • It is also home to more than 2000 migratory birds and various reptiles.

About Hussain Sagar Lake:

• It is an artificial lake located in Hyderabad, Telangana.
• It is also called Tank Bund and lies on a tributary of River Musi.
• It spreads across an area of 5.7 sq.km. It is one of the largest man-made lakes in Asia.
• It is the largest heart-shaped mark among the marks formed by 78 heart-shaped lakes and 9 heart-shaped islands on the face of the earth.
• It was built during the reign of Ibrahim Quli Qutub Shah by Hussain Shah Wali in 1562
• It is renowned for its monolith of Lord Buddha that stands right in its centre.
• It had been of significance in the early days since it connected the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad.
• Till 1930, the lake was used for irrigation and drinking water requirements.
• Over the years, Hussain Sagar Lake has become polluted through the entry of untreated sewage and industrial effluents through the nalas that flow into the lake.