About Syria:

• Location: It is located on the east coast of the Mediterranean Seain southwestern Asia.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by Turkey in the north, Lebanon in the west, Iraq in the east, Jordan in the south and Israel in the southwest.
• Capital City: Damascus
• Geographical Features of Syria:
  • Syria's geography offers two major regions, a western and an eastern part.
    • The western region features narrow, fertile coastal plains along the eastern Mediterranean
    • The eastern part of the country is the realm of the Syrian Desert which is a mixture of dry steppe and true desert landscape.
  • Rivers: Euphrates River flows across Syria before entering Iraq.
  • Lakes: Lake al-Assad (a man-made reservoir,) created by a dam on the Euphrates River.
  • Desert: Southern and eastern Syria are part of the northern Syrian Desert.
  • Highest Point: Mt Hermon.

About Chillai-Kalan:

• It is the 40-day period of the harshest winter cold in Kashmir region.
  • Chillai Kalan is a Persian term which means “Major Cold”.
• The Chillai Kalan (big cold) usually begins on December 21 and will end on January 30.
  • Chillai Kalan is followed by ‘Chillai-Khurd’ (small cold)– a 20-day period of moderate winter from January 31 to February 19, and the 10-day ‘Chillai-Bacha’ (baby cold), towards the fag end of the winter season from February 20 to March 2.
• Cultural Significance: According to Persian tradition, the night of 21st December is celebrated as Shab-e Yalda-“Night of Birth”, or Shab-e Chelleh. – “Night of Forty”. 
• Impacts of Chillai Kalan:
  • During this time Kashmir Valley faces its harshest phase of the winter season, including widespread snowfall, sub-zero temperatures and intense cold waves.
  • Traditionally, heavy snowfall during Chillai Kalan replenishes water reservoirs in the higher reaches, sustaining rivers, streams and lakes during the summer months.

About Southern Ocean:

• The Southern Ocean is also known as the Antarctic Ocean, is the fourth-largest ocean by surface area.
• The International Hydrographic Organization describes the Southern Ocean as the World Ocean’s southernmost portion.
• It is located on the lower end of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean and includes the tributary seas around the Antarctic region. 
• It is known for its strong winds, intense storms, dramatic seasonal changes and cold temperatures.
• It is dominated by the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) which is the longest, strongest, deepest-reaching current on earth. 
• Formation: It was formed when Antarctica and South America drifted apart, creating the Drake Passage.
• Biodiversity: Powerful currents, cold temperatures and nutrient and oxygen-rich waters make the Southern Ocean one of the most productive marine ecosystems on Earth.
• Role of Southern Ocean:
  • It plays an important role in the circulation of water around the globe.
  • It also plays a key role in regulating the earth’s climate through its currents, seasonal sea ice and by absorbing heat and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

About World Anti-Doping Agency:

• It was established in 1999 as an international independent agency to lead a collaborative worldwide movement for doping-free sport.
• Role: To develop, harmonize and coordinate anti-doping rules and policies across all sports and countries.
• It activities include scientific and social science research; education; intelligence & investigations; development of anti-doping capacity; and monitoring of compliance with the World Anti-Doping Program.
• It is funded equally by the Olympic Movement and Governments of the world.
• Headquarter: Montreal, Canada.
• Governance Structure of World Anti-Doping Agency
  • Foundation Board (Board): It is the agency’s highest policy-making body and is jointly composed of representatives of the Olympic Movement (the IOC, National Olympic Committees, International Sports Federations, and athletes) and representatives of governments from all five continents.
  • Executive Committee (ExCo): It looks after the management and running of the agency, including the performance of all its activities and the administration of its assets.

About Raccoon Roundworm:

• The raccoon roundworm (Baylisascaris procyonis) is the common large roundworm or ascarid found in the small intestinal tract of raccoons.
• It infects raccoons in parts of North America, Europe and Japan and less commonly in South America.
  • The parasite is indigenous to North America and emerging in Europe and Asia after the introduction of North American raccoons for the commercial fur trade in the early 20th century.
• It can cause severe disease in humans and other animals.
• Primary Hosts of Raccoon Roundworm: Racoons (​Procyon lotor​), Wild and domestic canids
• Transmission & Life Cycle of Raccoon Roundworm:
  • Infection occurs through ingestion of infective eggs or infected paratenic hosts.
  • Eggs passed in racoon faeces are shed in the environment and take 2-4weeks to embryonate and become infective.
  • Many mammals and birds can become paratenic hosts after consuming the eggs.
  • Once infective eggs are ingested, the eggs hatch and larvae penetrate the intestinal wall where they can migrate to various tissues (liver, lungs, eyes, and brain), and infect the host.
• Treatment and Control: Raccoons can be successfully treated with several anthelmintics to kill the adult worms.

Why in news?

Recently, seven elephants were killed when the Delhi-bound Rajdhani Express hit a herd in Assam’s Hojai district. The impact derailed the locomotive and five coaches, but no passengers were injured.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Elephant Deaths on Railway Tracks: Scale and Causes
• Preventing Elephant–Train Collisions: Why Crossings Matter
• Using Technology to Prevent Elephant–Train Collisions

Elephant Deaths on Railway Tracks: Scale and Causes

• India is home to over half of the world’s Asian elephant population, and train collisions have emerged as a major human-caused threat to their survival.
• Railway accidents are among the leading anthropogenic causes of elephant deaths in the country.
• Alarming Mortality Data
  • Between 2010 and 2020, at least 1,160 elephants died due to non-natural causes.
  • Electrocution was the biggest killer (741 deaths), followed by train hits (186 deaths).
  • Notably, electrocution is often linked to high-voltage overhead railway lines, indirectly tying rail infrastructure to multiple causes of death.
• Impact of Linear Transport Infrastructure (LTI)
  • Railways, roads, and canals cutting through forests fragment elephant habitats.
  • Such infrastructure can trap herds, restrict access to food and water, and increase stress, negatively affecting long-term health and survival.
• Night-Time Collisions and Behavioural Factors
  • Studies show that most train–elephant collisions occur at night.
  • Male elephants are disproportionately affected, as they cross tracks more frequently, especially during crop-harvest seasons when they engage in crop-raiding, increasing exposure to railway lines.

Preventing Elephant–Train Collisions: Why Crossings Matter?

• According to the Handbook to Mitigate the Impacts of Roads and Railways on Asian Elephants (2023) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the most effective strategy is avoiding elephant habitats and migration corridors while planning infrastructure.
• Mitigation measures are not substitutes for careful route selection, but are necessary when avoidance is impractical.
• Wildlife Crossing Structures: The Core Solution
  • Well-designed wildlife crossing structures, combined with fencing, can reduce wildlife mortality by up to 98%.
  • These crossings form the backbone of effective mitigation strategies for roads and railways cutting through elephant landscapes.
• Types of Crossings and Design Principles
  • Crossings can be underpasses (beneath bridges or flyovers) or overpasses (over tunnels or green bridges).
  • The choice depends on terrain and animal behaviour. For elephants, openness is critical—they avoid confined spaces.
  • The handbook recommends minimum heights of 6–7 metres, adjusted for crossing length, to ensure usage.
• Placement Based on Elephant Movement
  • Where and how many crossings are built matters as much as design.
  • Camera traps and GPS telemetry are used to map elephant movement and identify collision hotspots.
  • These data guide the optimal placement of crossings.
• Fencing as a Support Tool
  • Strategic fencing along high-risk stretches prevents elephants from straying onto tracks and gently channels them toward designated crossings, enhancing the effectiveness of the entire mitigation system.

Using Technology to Prevent Elephant–Train Collisions

• Role of Early-Warning Systems - Alongside habitat avoidance and physical measures like crossings and fencing, technology-based early-warning systems are emerging as effective non-structural solutions to reduce elephant–train accidents by alerting train operators in advance.
• Types of Sensor-Based Technologies - Early-warning systems can be locomotive-based or ground-based. Locomotive systems use Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR) cameras, capable of detecting obstructions up to 750 metres, even in poor visibility.
  • Ground-based systems deploy cameras, acoustic, or seismic sensors at known elephant crossing points.
• AI and Machine Learning as Game Changers - Earlier, these systems were limited by the massive data they generated and difficulties in distinguishing real threats from false alarms.
  • Artificial intelligence and machine learning now allow faster, more accurate analysis, greatly improving reliability and response time.
• Indian Railways’ Pilot Initiatives
  • Indian Railways has begun deploying AI-based early-warning systems, though adoption remains limited.
  • In 2023, the Northeast Frontier Railway pioneered AI monitoring to protect elephants, followed by a similar rollout along the Kerala–Tamil Nadu border in 2024.
  • Early results from these pilots have been encouraging, suggesting strong potential for wider implementation.

Why in news?

The Securities Markets Code (SMC), 2025, tabled in Parliament, proposes a sweeping overhaul of India’s securities regulation framework. It aims to strengthen investor protection, reduce compliance burdens, improve regulatory governance, and promote ease of doing business.

The Bill grants greater powers to Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), decriminalises minor violations, and bolsters market infrastructure institutions.

Crucially, it consolidates three existing laws—the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956, the SEBI Act, 1992, and the Depositories Act, 1996—into a single, comprehensive code.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• What the Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 Replaces?
• Key Provisions of the Securities Markets Code, 2025
• Aligning India’s Securities Law with Global Best Practices

What the Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 Replaces?

• The Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 proposes to merge and replace three existing securities laws—the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Act, 1956 (SCRA), the SEBI Act, 1992, and the Depositories Act, 1996.
• These decades-old statutes contain overlapping and redundant provisions that no longer align with today’s technology-driven, complex markets.
• The consolidation—first announced in Budget 2021—aims to move toward a single, principle-based framework that reduces interpretative conflicts and improves legal certainty.
• Stronger and More Representative Regulator - Under the Code, the board of Securities and Exchange Board of India will expand from 9 to 15 members, adding representatives from the Central Government, the RBI, and more whole-time members to strengthen governance and expertise.
• Tighter Conflict-of-Interest Norms - While earlier laws required disclosure of pecuniary interests, the new Code broadens the scope to include family members’ interests, mandating disclosure and recusal to enhance transparency and integrity in decision-making.
• Investor-Centric Additions - The Code formally incorporates an Investor Charter, which earlier had no explicit statutory backing. It also introduces a statutory Ombudsman as an independent grievance redressal authority, distinct from enforcement wings—addressing a long-standing gap in investor protection.

Key Provisions of the Securities Markets Code, 2025

• Strengthening SEBI’s Governance
  • The Code empowers the government to remove SEBI Board members for conflicts of interest or convictions involving moral turpitude.
  • It mandates disclosure of direct or indirect interests and expands the Board from 9 to 15 members, adding Central Government and RBI representation and more whole-time members.
• Easier, Proportionate Compliance
  • Contraventions are reclassified into two buckets.
  • Lesser violations (including fraudulent and unfair practices) are decriminalised and attract only civil penalties, while market abuse—serious misconduct harming market integrity—may invite both civil penalties and criminal action.
  • This aims to reduce compliance burden while preserving deterrence.
• Stronger Investor Protection
  • The Code requires Securities and Exchange Board of India to specify an Investor Charter, standardise grievance redressal across intermediaries and issuers, and appoint Ombudsperson(s) for time-bound resolution.
  • It also opens public consultations to investors, improving transparency and participation.
• Simplified Rules for Regulated Entities
  • A consolidated registration framework is proposed for intermediaries and pooled investment vehicles.
  • Stock exchanges, clearing corporations, and depositories are brought under a single code, with SEBI allowed to delegate registration functions to MIIs and SROs to streamline oversight.
• Better Inter-Regulatory Coordination
  • The Bill enables coordination among regulators to ease listing of other regulated instruments and improve interoperability among Market Infrastructure Institutions (MIIs), supporting smoother market operations, improved investment climate, and stronger market-making.

Aligning India’s Securities Law with Global Best Practices

• The Securities Markets Code Bill, 2025 incorporates international best practices by strengthening regulatory governance, accountability, and transparency.
• It introduces regulatory impact assessments, ensures arm’s-length separation between investigation and adjudication, establishes an Ombudsperson for investor grievances, and enables inter-regulatory coordination.
• Experts note that by combining enhanced penalties, clearer adjudication, and greater regulatory flexibility for innovation, the consolidation of multiple laws into a single code marks a significant step toward a modern, globally aligned securities framework.

Context:

• The Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) proposed new Flight Duty Time Limitations (FDTL) in January 2024 to ensure adequate rest for pilots and enhance passenger safety.
• However, repeated delays, selective regulatory relaxations, and alleged political influence culminated in a massive operational crisis at IndiGo in December 2025, when over 1,000 flights were cancelled, stranding thousands of passengers.
• The episode has raised serious concerns about regulatory capture (when regulators act in favour of the industry they regulate rather than the public), monopoly abuse, aviation safety, and governance failures in India’s civil aviation sector.

Background - FDTL and IndiGo’s Dominance:

• FDTL norms aim to prevent pilot fatigue, a globally recognised aviation safety risk.
• IndiGo allegedly ignored DGCA notifications, failed to recruit or train pilots, and continued aggressive scheduling.
• Pilot complaints were disregarded, and court cases were filed.
• DGCA repeatedly postponed implementation, allegedly favouring IndiGo.
• Final implementation was ordered only under court directions, effective July 1 and November 1 (in phased manner), nearly two years after proposal.

The IndiGo Meltdown:

• On December 5, over 1,000 IndiGo flights were cancelled. Thousands of passengers were stranded nationwide.
• The crisis exposed operational fragility, poor workforce planning, and regulatory complacency.

Market Structure and Monopoly Concerns:

• Market capture: IndiGo controls about 65% of India’s aviation market. Tata Group airlines (Air India) hold less than 30% market share.
• Passenger volume: It grew from 4 crore (2004) to 40 crore (2025), but airlines reduced from 8 to 2 major players.
• Concerns: This reflects monopolisation and regulatory capture, where regulators protect private profit over public interest.

Political Economy Angle:

• Political donations: Rs 58 crore by InterGlobe Aviation via electoral bonds (mainly to the ruling party).
• Alleged nexus: Between donations, regulatory leniency, and delayed safety compliance.
• Control over the pilot training: Acquisition of Flight Simulation Technique Centre (FSTC) by Adani Group raised concerns about control over the pilot training ecosystem, especially given India’s need for 30,000 pilots in 15 years.

Global Comparison - Southwest Airlines Crisis (USA):

• What happened: December 2022 winter storm triggered cancellations. Over 16,000 flights cancelled, 2 million passengers stranded.
• Root causes: Outdated, inflexible rostering and IT systems. Ignored internal warnings from pilots’ union.
• Regulatory response:
  • US Senate investigation - $140 million fine by US Department of Transportation (DOT), $600 million reimbursement to passengers.
  • The airline estimated total losses, both direct and indirect, to be nearly $1 billion.
  • Southwest re-evaluated its systems and committed to major resilience-focused upgrades.
• Outcome: By early 2025, Southwest regained operational reliability.
• Lesson for India: Strong, independent regulation ensures accountability and system resilience.

Key Issues Highlighted Amid Indigo Meltdown:

• Regulatory failure: Selective enforcement of safety norms. Weak accountability of DGCA leadership.
• Monopoly abuse: Dominant market share enabling fare manipulation and safety compromises.
• Passenger exploitation: Removal of fare cap led to exorbitant prices (e.g., after the Odisha train accident, airlines reportedly charged as much as Rs 1,00,000 for a Chennai-Bhubaneswar ticket). Fare cap reimposed only after crisis (December 5).
• Governance deficit: Lack of an independent aviation regulator. Executive-controlled DGCA under Aircraft Act, 1934.

Way Forward:

• Immediate measures: Accountability of political and bureaucratic leadership. Independent DGCA inquiry with time-bound reporting. Financial penalties on IndiGo to fund passenger compensation.
• Legal and regulatory actions:
  • The Competition Act: It empowers the government to impose penalties of up to 10% of the company’s average turnover over the last three years. It empowers the government to impose a structural remedy to break up a monopoly.
  • The Consumer Protection Act: Initiate suo motu action to impose penalties.
  • Redistribution of airport slots to promote competition.
• Structural reforms:
  • Establish an autonomous Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) through an Act of Parliament (as proposed in 2012), on the lines of the US FAA.
  • Parliamentary oversight via a Joint Parliamentary Committee (JPC) to examine regulatory lapses and political funding nexus.
• Fare regulation: Introduce price bands or permanent fare caps in monopolistic or emergency situations to protect consumers.

Conclusion:

• The IndiGo meltdown is not merely an operational failure but a systemic governance crisis rooted in regulatory capture, monopoly dominance, and weak institutional accountability.
• Global experience shows that strong, independent regulators and stringent penalties are essential to safeguard passenger interest and aviation safety.
• For India, restructuring aviation regulation and restoring public trust must become immediate policy priorities to ensure that rapid growth does not come at the cost of safety and equity.