Why in news?

Warmer nights may pose a greater health risk than daytime heatwaves during Indian summers, especially for people living in low- and middle-income housing. While daytime heat receives most attention, nighttime temperatures in India are rising even faster, increasing the danger of prolonged heat exposure.

Normally, cooler nights allow the human body to recover from daytime heat, but persistently high night temperatures prevent this recovery, leading to continuous physiological stress. The risk is particularly severe in poorly ventilated homes without air-conditioning, where people remain trapped in hot indoor conditions for hours.

A recent Climate Trends study in Chennai found many households experiencing indoor nighttime temperatures above 32°C, sometimes even crossing 35°C, comparable to peak daytime heat.

Though research in India is limited, global studies suggest that warmer nights could significantly increase heat-related deaths, making indoor heat exposure an emerging public health concern.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Rising Night-Time Temperatures: An Emerging Heat Risk
• Heat Beyond Heatwaves: The Hidden Danger of Warm Nights

Rising Night-Time Temperatures: An Emerging Heat Risk

• India’s average temperature increased by about 0.7°C between 1901 and 2018, according to the 2020 climate assessment for the Indian region.
• While both daytime and nighttime temperatures have risen, their rates differ.
• By the end of the century:
  • Warmest day temperatures may rise by 4.7°C
  • Coldest night temperatures may rise by 5.5°C
• This indicates that nighttime temperatures are likely to rise faster than daytime temperatures, a trend already visible in recent IMD data.
• Urban Heat Island Effect
  • The rise in nighttime temperatures is particularly severe in cities due to the urban heat island effect.
  • Causes - Urban materials such as: Concrete; Roads; Bricks; Metal structures, absorb heat during the day and release it at night.
  • This effect is intensified by: Lack of vegetation and green spaces; Loss of water bodies; Dense clusters of high-rise buildings; Growing use of air-conditioners that release hot air outdoors.
  • As a result, nighttime temperatures in dense urban areas can be 4–6°C higher than in city outskirts.
• Impact on Urban Residents
  • The problem is especially acute in urban India, where many people live in: Small houses; Poorly designed structures; Homes with inadequate ventilation.
  • This leaves residents with little nighttime relief from heat.
  • Persistently warm nights can lead to: Sleep discomfort; Restlessness; Physical exhaustion; Reduced energy levels; Lower productivity the following day.
  • Experts warn that the full scale of health impacts is still being studied, but the risks are likely to be significant.

Heat Beyond Heatwaves: The Hidden Danger of Warm Nights

• Evidence suggests that high night-time temperatures may significantly increase mortality.
• Public health experts highlighted that when daytime temperatures exceeded 45°C but night temperatures stayed below 28°C, daily deaths remained close to the normal average of 100.
• However, when nighttime temperatures rose to 28–30°C, daily deaths increased to around 165, and when they crossed 30°C, mortality surged to nearly 265 deaths per day.
• This indicates a strong correlation between warmer nights and increased health risks.
• Limitations of Current Heat Action Plans
  • India has heat action plans in at least 23 states and over 200 cities, but these largely focus on managing heatwave events, which occur only when specific temperature thresholds are met and may happen only a few times a month.
  • However, extreme summer heat and rising night-time temperatures are a persistent reality, suggesting that existing responses may be too narrowly focused on episodic heatwaves rather than continuous heat exposure.
• Need for Long-Term Structural Measures
  • Experts stress the need to strengthen the long-term components of heat action plans, including:
    • Improved urban infrastructure
    • Better low-cost, heat-resilient housing
    • Expansion of green spaces
    • Better urban planning to reduce heat stress
• Immediate Relief Measures
  • For vulnerable households, especially those in cramped living conditions, simple low-cost solutions can offer quick relief.
  • The Climate Trends Chennai study suggests measures such as:
    • Reflective roof coatings
    • Whitewashed roofs and walls
    • Improved natural ventilation
  • These passive cooling interventions can help reduce indoor heat exposure and lessen health risks from increasingly warmer nights.

Why in news?

India’s summer electricity demand has surged earlier than expected, with peak power demand reaching a record 256.1 GW on April 25, followed by even higher peaks on May 19 and 20.

Nearly one-third of this peak demand was met through renewable energy sources, helping the national grid remain stable during daylight hours.

However, during non-solar hours, when renewable generation declined, the grid faced a 2% power deficit (4,243 MW), highlighting the growing challenge of meeting rising evening and night-time electricity demand.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Understanding Peak Power Demand
• How States Manage Power Demand?
• Challenges Faced by States Amid Rising Power Demand
• Role of Renewable Energy in Managing Power Demand
• The Way Forward

Understanding Peak Power Demand

• Peak demand refers to the highest level of electricity consumption on a power grid during a specific period, usually measured over a 15-minute interval.
• Although it represents a single point in time, peak demand generally occurs during a 2–4 hour period of unusually high electricity use.
• Why Peak Demand Matters?
  • The power grid must be able to instantly meet peak electricity demand, even if it lasts only for a short duration.
  • This means the entire electricity infrastructure—generation, transmission, and distribution systems—must be designed with peak demand in mind.
  • Managing peak demand is difficult because:
    • Building enough infrastructure to meet the highest demand at all times can be: Expensive; Inefficient. Much of the capacity would remain under-utilised during normal or off-peak hours.
    • If adequate capacity is unavailable during peak periods, it can lead to: Load shedding; Power shortages.
  • Thus, balancing reliability and economic efficiency remains a key challenge for the power sector.

How States Manage Power Demand?

• States manage electricity demand through contractual supply and power exchange purchases.
• The primary mechanism is long-term Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs) signed by State distribution companies (DISCOMs) with power generators, ensuring a stable electricity supply over several years.
• When contractual supply falls short due to sudden spikes in demand, power plant outages, or transmission failures, DISCOMs turn to the second mechanism—purchasing electricity from power exchanges.
• These short-term market purchases help address real-time supply-demand mismatches.
  • Currently, about 10–15% of electricity in India is traded through power exchanges.
• Demand-Side Management During Peak Hours
  • Some states are using more advanced tools. Delhi, for example, has increasingly adopted time-of-day tariffs, where electricity prices vary according to the time of use, encouraging consumers to shift usage away from peak periods.
  • The use of smart meters is also helping flatten evening demand peaks, particularly those caused by heavy cooling loads during summer.

Challenges Faced by States Amid Rising Power Demand

• India’s electricity demand has risen sharply. Over the last five years, the country’s peak demand has increased by 37%, rising from 183 GW in December 2020 to over 250 GW in April 2026, making it increasingly difficult for states to meet demand reliably.
• State DISCOMs largely depend on long-term power purchase agreements (PPAs) with fixed capacity and pricing.
• However, when demand exceeds contracted supply, they must purchase electricity from short-term power exchanges, where prices rise sharply during peak period, increasing the financial burden on states.
• Weak Distribution Infrastructure
  • While India has significantly expanded generation and transmission capacity, distribution infrastructure has not kept pace.
  • Over the last decade:
    • Generation capacity increased by 76% (303 GW to 532 GW)
    • Transmission network expanded by 47%
    • Transformation capacity increased by 115%
  • However, distribution systems remain under severe stress, affecting last-mile electricity delivery.
• Frequent Equipment Failures
  • The distribution network faces major operational challenges:
    • Nearly 13 lakh distribution transformers fail annually
    • Several northern states experience failure rates as high as 20%
  • Key reasons include:
    • Overloaded transformers and feeders
    • Ageing equipment
    • Poor maintenance
    • Infrastructure operating near capacity limits
  • This often leads to local outages during peak demand periods.
• Financial Constraints of States
  • The problem is particularly severe for financially weak states, which struggle to:
    • Buy expensive short-term electricity
    • Upgrade ageing distribution infrastructure
  • States such as Uttar Pradesh and Bihar continue to face high distribution losses, overloaded transformers, and outdated infrastructure, making them especially vulnerable during demand surges.

Role of Renewable Energy in Managing Power Demand

• Renewable energy (RE) has become crucial in meeting rising summer electricity demand, especially because solar and wind power have low operating costs, reducing DISCOMs’ power purchase burden.
• States like Gujarat and Karnataka effectively meet daytime peak demand through solar power, while Tamil Nadu benefits from strong wind generation during monsoon months.
• RE’s variable nature limits round-the-clock reliability:
  • Solar generation drops after sunset, just when evening demand rises
  • Wind power is seasonal and weather-dependent
• States with low RE capacity, such as Punjab, rely more on hydro imports and costly market purchases.

The Way Forward

• To manage rising peak demand efficiently, states need:
  • Energy storage systems such as Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) and Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS)
  • Smarter transmission and distribution networks
  • Energy efficiency measures
  • Demand-side tools like time-of-day tariffs and agricultural load scheduling
• India’s power challenge is shifting from merely generating more electricity to managing supply efficiently across time and regions, requiring major investments in storage and grid flexibility.

Why in the News?

• Recent remarks by the Chief Justice of India from the Bench have reignited debate on the limits of judicial oral observations and the standards of judicial conduct.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Oral Remarks (Background, Institutional Limits of Courts, Previous Judgements, Role of Questioning, Recent Controversy & Concerns, etc.)

Judicial Oral Remarks and Institutional Limits of Courts

• Courts frequently make oral observations during hearings to test arguments, clarify legal positions, and engage lawyers in meaningful debate.
• However, when such remarks become controversial or appear excessive, questions arise about the institutional limits of judicial speech and the distinction between a judge’s oral comments and a court’s final judgment.
• The recent controversy over remarks made by the Chief Justice of India has revived an important constitutional question: How far can judges go in their oral observations from the Bench?

About Judicial Oral Remarks

• Judicial oral remarks are comments, questions, or observations made by judges during court proceedings. These remarks help judges:

• Test the strength of legal arguments.
• Clarify facts and legal principles.
• Examine possible implications of a legal position.
• Understand competing viewpoints before delivering a judgment.

• Importantly, oral observations are not legally binding. The official position of a court is reflected only in its written judgments and formal orders.
• This distinction was strongly emphasised by the Supreme Court in the Chief Election Commissioner vs M.R. Vijayabhaskar (2021) case.

The Vijayabhaskar Judgment and Judicial Standards

• The issue gained prominence during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, when the Madras High Court criticised the Election Commission for permitting political rallies during elections and orally remarked that officials should perhaps face “murder charges”.
• The Election Commission approached the Supreme Court seeking restrictions on media reporting of such oral remarks.
• However, the Supreme Court rejected this demand and upheld the importance of courtroom openness.
• At the same time, the Court clarified an important principle:
  • The formal opinion of a judicial institution is expressed through judgments and orders, not oral observations made during hearings.
  • The judgment also warned judges against using “scathing” or “inappropriate” language directed at individuals or institutions.
• Thus, the Supreme Court recognised two dimensions of oral remarks:

• The bench question that tests arguments.
• The remark that wounds or unnecessarily harms.

The Role of Bench Questions

• Judges often ask difficult or provocative questions to evaluate legal arguments. These questions may not necessarily reflect the final opinion of the court.
• For example, during hearings on same-sex marriage in Supriyo vs Union of India (2023), oral observations of the Bench suggested openness to broader recognition of gender identity. However, the final judgment adopted a different legal position.
• This demonstrates that courtroom questioning is often a method of legal testing rather than judicial endorsement.
• In constitutional democracies, judges are expected to challenge lawyers rigorously before arriving at a considered conclusion.

Institutional Limits on Judicial Speech

• While judges enjoy freedom to ask searching questions, judicial conduct is constrained by constitutional morality, institutional discipline, and public trust.
• India’s Restatement of Values of Judicial Life (1997), adopted by the Supreme Court, provides ethical guidance for judges.
• It cautions judges against entering public controversies or expressing opinions in ways that may compromise judicial neutrality.
• Similarly, legal scholar and judge Benjamin Cardozo argued that judicial discretion must be guided by tradition, legal reasoning, and institutional order rather than impulsive emotion.
• The concern becomes serious when judges use language that may appear:

• Dehumanising or offensive.
• Politically charged.
• Excessively personal or emotional.
• Capable of undermining institutional dignity.

• Because courts derive legitimacy from public confidence, judicial speech must remain measured and restrained.

The Recent Controversy and Institutional Concerns

• The recent controversy arose when the Chief Justice reportedly referred to some individuals using strong expressions while hearing matters related to senior advocate designations. A later clarification attempted to limit the scope of the criticism.
  • Hearing applications relating to the designation of senior advocates, the Chief Justice remarked that “there are youngsters like cockroaches” and that some advocates were “parasites of society.”
  • The clarification confined the criticism to fake-degree-holding designees.
• However, the episode revived concerns over whether controversial oral remarks, particularly when amplified instantly through media and social platforms, can weaken institutional credibility.
• Unlike earlier decades, oral observations today spread rapidly into the public sphere even before formal judgments are delivered. This creates a tension between:

• The need for free and spontaneous courtroom discussion.
• The obligation to maintain judicial restraint and institutional dignity.

• Many legal experts argue that clarifications alone may not fully address concerns if the original remarks appear inconsistent with established judicial standards.

Why in News?

• During the Indian PM’s visit to Italy, India and Italy elevated bilateral ties to a “Special Strategic Partnership”, signalling a qualitative transformation in relations.
• The Italian PM (Giorgia Meloni) and the Indian PM agreed on a broad-based cooperation agenda spanning trade, defence, technology, connectivity, energy security and geopolitics.
• The visit concluded the Indian PM’s wider Europe tour, which started with UAE, and included visits to Norway, Sweden and Netherlands.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Elevation to “Special Strategic Partnership”
• Expanding Economic and Trade Partnership
• Defence and Strategic Cooperation
• IMEEC and Maritime Connectivity
• Other Areas of Cooperation
• India-Italy Relations
• Conclusion

Elevation to “Special Strategic Partnership”:

• The upgradation of ties reflects growing convergence between India and Italy on global governance, economic resilience and strategic autonomy.
• The partnership is anchored in the Joint Strategic Plan of Action 2025–29, which provides an operational roadmap for deeper engagement.
• Italy increasingly views India not merely as a large market but as a major geopolitical and economic power essential for Europe’s future engagement with the Indo-Pacific and Global South.
• Both leaders highlighted shared commitments towards international stability, rule-based order, economic security, resilient supply chains, peaceful conflict resolution, and inclusive development.

Expanding Economic and Trade Partnership:

• India and Italy set an ambitious target to raise bilateral trade from €14 billion to €20 billion by 2029.
• Both sides also underlined the importance of the proposed India–EU Free Trade Agreement (FTA) in accelerating trade and investment flows.
• Key areas of economic cooperation: Advanced manufacturing, infrastructure, green energy, agribusiness, tourism and culture, maritime logistics, space economy, AI and quantum technology.
• The Indian PM described the partnership as a blend of Italy’s design and precision with India’s scale, talent and affordable innovation, summarised in the principle: “Design and Develop in India and Italy, Deliver for the World.”
• Italy’s industrial expertise and India’s digital infrastructure were identified as complementary strengths capable of generating high-quality industrial collaboration and employment.

Defence and Strategic Cooperation:

• A major outcome was the agreement on a Defence Industrial Roadmap, opening avenues for co-development, co-production, technology transfer, and industrial partnerships.
• Priority defence sectors:
  • Helicopters (renewed momentum after cooperation between India’s Adani Defence and Italy’s Leonardo S.p.A),
  • Naval platforms,
  • Marine armaments,
  • Electronic warfare systems, and
  • MRO (maintenance, repair and overhaul) facilities.
• The roadmap assumes significance because defence ties had slowed after the AgustaWestland corruption controversy.
• Both countries also agreed to strengthen the protection of critical infrastructure and supply chains, reflecting emerging concerns over strategic vulnerabilities.

IMEEC and Maritime Connectivity:

• Italy reiterated strong support for the India–Middle East–Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC), where it sees itself as Europe’s western anchor.
• IMEEC aims to enhance trade connectivity, supply chain resilience, energy security, and maritime integration.
• The two countries agreed to hold the first IMEEC ministerial meeting in 2026.

Other Areas of Cooperation:

• Maritime cooperation: As two important maritime powers located in the Mediterranean and the Indo-Pacific, both countries recognised the strategic necessity of strengthening inter-regional connectivity through -
  • Maritime transport,
  • Port modernisation,
  • Logistics, and
  • Blue economy cooperation
• Critical minerals, technology and innovation:
  • An India–Italy Innovation Centre is proposed to connect industries, research institutions and start-ups.
  • Emerging technology sectors (like space cooperation, civil nuclear energy) identified for collaboration to align with India’s goals of technological self-reliance and supply-chain diversification.
• Mobility, education and social cooperation:
  • Agreements include mobility of Indian nurses to Italy, roadmap on higher education and research, cooperation in agriculture, export of Indian seafood, etc.
  • The two sides also discussed a future Social Security Agreement, which would benefit Indian professionals working in Italy.
• Convergence on global and regional issues: India and Italy expressed broad alignment on major geopolitical crises (Ukraine conflict, West Asia tensions, Iran crisis, and Indo-Pacific stability).

India-Italy Relations:

• Diplomatic relations between India and Italy were established in 1947. After some years of tensions (due to the 2012 case of the two Italian marines), the two countries revived normal relations.
• The visit of the Italian PM Gentiloni to India in 2017 marked a "new beginning" and a great opportunity for both countries.
• At the 50th G7 Summit (held in Italy in 2024), the Italian PM Giorgia Meloni gave a new height to the relations with the caption of "Melodi".
• Italy is India's 3rd largest trading partner in export in EU, after Germany and Netherland and 4th largest trading partner in import after Germany, Belgium and France.
• The Indian community in Italy (estimated at 2.5 lakh including PIOs) is the third largest community of Indians in Europe after the UK and the Netherlands.

Conclusion:

• The India–Italy Special Strategic Partnership marks a significant expansion of India’s engagement with Europe beyond traditional partners such as France and Germany.
• At a broader level, the partnership reflects India’s growing role as a balancing power in the Indo-Pacific and a trusted partner in shaping an emerging multipolar world order.

Context

• The lack of targeted funding for justice reforms in the Union Budget 2026–27 reflects India’s continued neglect of the rule of law as a pillar of economic growth and democratic governance.
• Although large amounts are spent on the justice system, the allocation of resources remains deeply uneven.
• Across 11 high-GDP States, around ₹2 lakh crore was spent on justice-related institutions in 2024–25, accounting for nearly 4.6% of State budgets.
• However, the majority of this expenditure is concentrated on policing, while sectors such as the judiciary, legal aid, prisons, and human rights bodies remain significantly underfunded.

Structure of Justice Expenditure in India

• Dominance of Police Funding
  • More than 80% of justice-related expenditure is allocated to the police system and around ₹1,616 per capita is spent on policing, making it the largest component of justice budgets.
  • Since policing is a core responsibility of the State, substantial funding is necessary.
  • However, most police expenditure is directed towards salaries, administrative management, and infrastructure such as vehicles and computers.
  • Less than 1.5% of police budgets are spent on training, while only around 1% is allocated to forensics.
• Underfunding of the Judiciary
  • The judiciary receives less than 1% of total State budgets despite handling enormous caseloads and judicial delays.
  • District courts alone manage seven times more cases than High Courts, yet they receive only three times the budget.
  • Limited investment in judicial infrastructure and staff creates delays in dispute resolution and affects public confidence in the legal system.
  • India currently has only 15 judges per 10 lakh population, far below the Law Commission recommendation of 50 judges per 10 lakh people.
  • In addition, every judge requires several clerical and support staff members for efficient functioning.
  • Insufficient judicial capacity slows down economic activity, weakens contract enforcement, and reduces access to timely justice.

Crisis in Supporting Institutions

• Condition of Prisons
  • The 11 States discussed account for nearly 60% of India’s prisoners, with prison occupancy reaching 137%, higher than the national average.
  • Despite this, prisons receive only 0.14% of State budgets.
  • Very little funding is directed towards prison staff development, welfare, or rehabilitation programmes.
  • On average, only ₹0.23 out of every ₹100 spent on prisons is allocated to training.
  • High vacancy rates and overcrowded prisons create poor living conditions and reduce the possibility of reforming inmates.
• Neglect of Legal Aid
  • Legal aid receives the least amount of funding among all justice institutions.
  • Since legal aid is the primary mechanism through which poor and marginalised citizens access justice, inadequate funding directly affects equal justice and constitutional rights.
  • Limited financial support reduces the reach of legal services and delays legal representation for vulnerable groups.
  • As a result, economically weaker sections often struggle to defend themselves within the legal system, increasing inequality in access to justice.

Systemic Priorities and Institutional Imbalance

• Focus on Enforcement Over Justice
  • The current distribution of funds reflects a justice system primarily designed around enforcement and surveillance rather than fairness and accessibility.
  • Strong emphasis on policing creates a system capable of producing arrests and detentions but less effective in delivering remedies and protecting rights.
  • Data from the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) show that nearly 26 lakh people were arrested in 2024, many from socially and economically disadvantaged communities.
• Weak Oversight Institutions
  • Institutions responsible for accountability and rights protection also suffer from neglect.
  • State Human Rights Commissions (SHRCs) receive only around 80 paisa per capita despite their statutory responsibility to investigate rights violations and monitor safeguards.
  • Many SHRCs continue to function with over 40% vacancies, limiting their effectiveness and weakening independent oversight.
  • Without strong accountability institutions, citizens face greater difficulty in seeking protection against abuse of power.

The Way Forward: Need for Recalibration of Justice Budgets

• A balanced justice system requires equal attention to all its pillars, policing, judiciary, prisons, legal aid, and oversight institutions.
• Excessive dependence on policing creates pressure on other institutions and results in delays, overcrowding, and procedural inefficiencies.
• Greater investment in judicial infrastructure, legal representation, prison reforms, and professional training would strengthen the overall justice delivery mechanism.
• A more balanced allocation of resources would also improve accessibility, fairness, and institutional accountability.

Conclusion

• While policing receives the largest share of resources, institutions essential for ensuring rights, fairness, and accountability remain underfunded.
• Shortages of judges, overcrowded prisons, weak legal aid systems, and ineffective oversight bodies undermine public trust and disproportionately affect marginalised communities.
• A meaningful recalibration of justice budgets is essential for building a people-centred and constitutionally grounded justice system.
• Strengthening every component of the justice ecosystem would not only improve access to justice but also support democracy, social stability, and long-term economic development.

Context

• The 2027 Census is one of the most important administrative exercises in India because it will influence political representation, welfare schemes, and future governance.
• The upcoming Census is unique due to two major developments: the inclusion of caste enumeration for the first time since Independence and the use of digital enumeration through smartphones and self-enumeration systems.
• While these measures may improve efficiency and data collection, they also raise concerns regarding accuracy, technology, confidentiality, and public trust.

Inclusion of Caste Enumeration

• The inclusion of caste-related questions is a major development because caste remains a sensitive social and political issue in India.
• Surveys conducted in Bihar and Karnataka demonstrated that disputes often emerge over caste classification and population figures.
• Many communities may reject the results if they believe they have been undercounted.
• To avoid confusion and inconsistency, extensive pre-testing of the questionnaire is necessary.
• Enumerators must clearly understand the concepts, definitions, and instructions before conducting the survey.
• Without proper preparation, inaccurate caste data could create social tensions and reduce confidence in the Census process.

Method of Enumeration and Political Representation

• India follows an extended de facto method of enumeration, where people are counted at their usual place of residence during the Census period.
• This method includes persons temporarily absent as well as visitors staying in a household during the enumeration period.
• However, this creates differences between Census population figures and voter population data.
• Such differences are politically significant because the Census will be used for the future delimitation of Lok Sabha and State Assembly constituencies.

Digital Enumeration and Technological Challenges

• Lack of Technical Skills
  • A major concern is that many enumerators may not be adequately trained to use digital devices.
  • Difficulties in operating electronic equipment were already observed during the Socio Economic and Caste Survey in Karnataka.
  • Uneven technological skills among enumerators could affect the quality of data collection.
• Concerns Regarding Confidentiality
  • There are also risks related to data confidentiality and accountability.
  • If data collected on paper is later transferred to electronic systems, mistakes and misuse may occur.
  • Family members or students assisting with data entry could compromise privacy.
  • Since Census information includes sensitive details related to caste, migration, occupation, and disability, strict safeguards are essential.

Problems in Self-Enumeration

• Complexity of Census Questions
  • Definitions related to disability, work status, occupation, and industry often require lengthy explanations.
  • For example, the meaning of work in Census terminology includes unpaid and irregular economic activities that many people may not identify as employment.
  • Incorrect understanding of such concepts can lead to inaccurate statistics and poor policy planning.
• Respondent Fatigue
  • Another issue is respondent fatigue. Since information must be provided for every member of the household, long and complicated questionnaires may discourage careful responses.
  • Some respondents may intentionally provide incorrect answers to avoid follow-up questions. Simplified language and better question design are therefore necessary.
• Risk of Omissions and Fraudulent Enumeration
  • Past post-enumeration surveys have shown that domestic helpers, distant relatives, and unrelated persons living in households are more likely to be omitted from Census records.
  • Self-enumeration systems may increase this risk because respondents may not fully understand who qualifies as a household member.
  • There is also the possibility of fraudulent enumeration. Since Census figures influence reservations, welfare distribution, and political representation, some groups may attempt to manipulate population numbers.

Measures to Improve Accuracy

• Several measures can improve the quality and reliability of the Census:
  • Extensive field testing of questionnaires
  • Better training for enumerators
  • Simplified and clearly worded questions
  • Strong verification systems for digital data entry
  • Safeguards to maintain confidentiality
  • Questions designed to reduce omissions of household members
  • Monitoring mechanisms to prevent fraudulent enumeration

Conclusion

• The 2027 Census combines technological innovation with complex social and political challenges.
• The inclusion of caste data and the use of digital systems can improve the scope and efficiency of data collection, but they also create risks related to accuracy, privacy, and representation.
• The success of the Census will depend on proper training, simplified questionnaires, reliable digital systems, and strict safeguards against omissions and manipulation.
• An accurate and credible Census is essential for ensuring fair representation, effective policymaking, and democratic accountability in India.

About Kumbhalgarh Fort:

• It is located in the Rajsamand district of Rajasthan.
• It is strategically located in the western Aravalli hills.
• Considered to be the second most significant citadel in the Mewar region after Chittorgarh, this majestic fort was constructed in the 15th century AD by Rana Kumbha, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mewar.
• Spanning over 36 kilometers, its walls are second only to the Great Wall of China, earning it the moniker “the Great Wall of India.”
• The fort has also been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site as part of the group of Hill Forts of Rajasthan.
• The fort contains seven fortified gateways and ancient temples—both, Hindu and Jain, as well as the Lakhola Tank, the most famous tank within the fort, which was built by Rana Lakha.
• For centuries, Kumbhalgarh Fort served as a refuge for Mewar rulers during times of war.
• It is the birthplace of Mewar’s legendary king, Maharana Pratap. Maharana Pratap led numerous battles against the Mughal Empire, with Kumbhalgarh serving as his sanctuary..
• The fort is surrounded by the Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary.

About Loktak Lake:

• It is located in the state of Manipur.
• It is the largest freshwater lake in Northeast India.
• The lake is famous for its phumdis.
  • Phumdis are unique, heterogeneous masses of vegetation, soil, and organic matter that float on the water's surface.
  • Only 20% of a phumdis’ thickness floats above the water surface; the other 80% remains submerged.
  • The floating masses are strong enough to support fishing huts, human settlements, and animal habitats.
• The Keibul Lamjao National Park is an integral part of the lake. It is the world's only floating national park.
• The park is best known as the habitat of the endangered sangai deer, also called the brow-antlered deer, which is native to Manipur.
• Rivers like Khuga, Western, Nambul, Imphal, Kongba, Iril, Thoubal, Heirok, and Sekmai drain into this lake.
• It was designated as a wetland of international importance under the Ramsar Convention in 1990.
• It features under the Montreux Record in 1993, “a record of Ramsar sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring, or are likely to occur”.
• It supports hydropower, fisheries, transport, and tourism.

About Kashmir Flycatcher:

• It is a small passerine bird in the flycatcher family Muscicapidae.
• Scientific Name: Ficedula subrubra
• Distribution:
  • It is endemic to the Indian Subcontinent.
  • It makes its home in the northwest Himalayas. It breeds in the Kashmir region.
  • It is a migratory bird.
  • It winters largely in the high altitudes of the Nilgiris in the Western Ghats and in Sri Lanka.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Vulnerable