About Euphrates River:

• It is Western Asia’s longest river.
• Course:
  • The river originates in the Armenian Highlands of southeastern Turkey.
  • It then flows through the countries of Syria and Iraq, where it meets with the Tigris River and finally drains into the Persian Gulf.
• The Euphrates River flows parallel to the Tigris River and along with all their tributaries, form the large Tigris-Euphrates River System.
• Ancient Mesopotamia, a part of what is often called the “Fertile Crescent,” occupied the land between the Tigris and Euphrates
• Some of the world’s oldest civilizations were established there thousands of years ago.
• One of the ancient world’s most important cities, Babylon, was built along the Euphrates.
• Often used as a boundary between various kingdoms, the Euphrates was the scene of battles during ancient times.
• The Euphrates receives most of its water from winter rains and snowfall in the mountains. The rest of the land that the Euphrates flows through is dry.

About Project Garud:

• It is a satellite platform programme launched by Hyderabad-based space startup Dhruva Space.
• It is focused on developing a flat-pack 500 kg-class satellite platform designed for scalable and high-volume manufacturing.
• It is positioned to bridge the gap between smaller experimental satellites and larger traditional systems.
• The platform is being developed as a standardised, production-oriented spacecraft capable of supporting multiple mission c
• The satellite architecture is aimed at applications across Telecommunications, National Security, Earth Observation, and emerging data-driven use cases.
• The platform introduces a flat-pack architecture that enables efficient launch stacking, faster system integration, and improved deployment timelines, making it suitable for large-scale satellite deployments.
• Dhruva Space will also establish the infrastructure, tooling, and industrial processes required for high-volume satellite manufacturing at scale.
• The manufacturing roadmap is designed to support production of up to two satellites per day, translating into an annual manufacturing capacity of nearly 500-600 satellites. 

About Rakchham Chitkul Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh.
• The sanctuary is also referred to as `Sangla Wildlife Sanctuary`.
• The perilous Lamkhanga Pass is one of the many trekking routes that pass through this sanctuary.
  • This pass connects the Himachal Pradesh province of Kinnaur to the Uttarakhand region of Gangotri.
• Unlike the climate of other sanctuaries in Himachal Pradesh, the sanctuary is located in a dry zone; hence it does not experience monsoons.
• Vegetation: Sub-Alpine Forests, Dry Broadleaf and Coniferous Forests, Dry Temperate Forests and Dry Alpine Scrubs and Pastures.
• Flora: Rhododendrons, oak trees, pine trees, and medicinal herbs.
• Fauna: It is also home to various species of wildlife, such as snow leopards, Himalayan black bears, musk deer, and numerous bird species.

Key Facts about Himalayan Brown Bear:

• It is the largest mammal found in the high-altitude regions of the Himalayas.
• It is one of the most ancient brown bear lineages.
• Scientific Name: Ursus arctos isabellinus
• It is also known as the “Himalayan Red Bear” and the “Isabelline Bear”. It is known as Denmo in the Ladakhi
• It is believed by some that the bear’s ability to walk upright probably gave rise to the legend of the Yeti or “Abominable Snowman.”
• Distribution:
  • They are found in the northwestern and central Himalayas, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China, and Bhutan.
  • They are found above the timberline, between 3,000 and 5,500 meters above sea level.
  • In India, this species exists in small isolated populations in the fragmented alpine and subalpine habitats of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand.
• Features:
  • Males are larger than females, with an average length of 1.9 m and weight of 135 kg, in comparison to the female averages of 1.6 m and 70 kg.
  • It has thick fur, which is most often sandy or reddish-brown in colour.
  • Food: Omnivorous, eating grasses, roots, bulbs, and other plants, insects, and small mammals such as marmots, pikas, and voles.
  • They hibernate in dens during the winter.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Critically Endangered

About Tughlaqabad Fort:

• It is located in South Delhi.
• It was built by the founder of the Tughlaq Dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din-Tughlaq in 1321.
  • Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq, also called Ghazi Malik, was the slave who served Sultan Mubarak Khilji of the Khilji Dynasty.
  • Ghazi Malik drove away the Khilji ruler and built his city of Tughlaqabad and the fort.
• Established as the 3rd historic city, the fort was later abandoned in 1327 after a curse given by Nizamuddin Auliya.
• Features:
  • The fort is divided into three parts: the main city area with houses built along a rectangular grid between its gates, the citadel with a tower at its highest point known as Bijai-Mandal, and the adjacent palace area containing the royal residences.
  • On the southern side of the fort is the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, which was built in 1325 AD by the ruler himself.
  • Ghiyas-ud-din's successor, Muhammad Tughluq (1325-51), added the small fortress of ‘Adilabad on the hill south of Tughluqabad, with which it shares the main characteristics of construction.

About Meningitis:

• Meningitis is an inflammation (swelling) of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord. These membranes are called meninges.
• It can be deadly and often results in serious long-term health issues.
• Causes:
  • It can be caused by several species of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.
  • Injuries, cancers, and drugs cause a small number of cases.
• Bacterial meningitis is the most serious type of meningitis. It is a severe, life-threatening condition that can often lead to long-term adverse health consequences.
• Transmission: Infections that cause meningitis can be spread through sneezing and coughing.
• Treatment and Prevention:
  • Meningitis is a medical emergency. It is potentially fatal within 24 hours and requires urgent medical attention.
  • Meningitis can vary in severity, appropriate treatment and care depending on the cause.
  • Meningitis caused by bacteria requires immediate antibiotic treatment.
  • Vaccines offer the best protection against common types of bacterial meningitis.
  • Antibiotics for close contacts of those with meningococcal disease, when given promptly, decreases the risk of transmission.
  • Viral meningitis usually goes away on its own without treatment.

About Advance Authorisation (AA) Scheme:

• It allows duty free import of inputs, which are physically incorporated in an export product.
• In addition to any inputs, packaging material, fuel, oil and catalysts which are consumed/utilized in the process of production of export products, are also allowed.
• The inputs imported are exempt from duties like,
  • Basic Customs Duty, Additional Customs Duty, Education Cess, Anti-dumping duty, Safeguard Duty and Transition Product-Specific Safeguard duty, Integrated tax, and Compensation Cess, wherever applicable, subject to certain conditions. 
• An export obligation is usually set as a condition for issuing Advance Authorization.
• Advanced Authorization Issued to
  • Manufacturer Exporters: Entities engaged in manufacturing goods for export.
  • Merchant Exporters tied to Supporting Manufacturer(s): Traders who do not manufacture themselves but procure goods from a supporting manufacturer for export.
• The Advanced Authorization shall be issued for
  • Physical exports
  • Intermediate supply
  • Supplies made to specified categories of deemed exports
  • Supply of ‘stores’ on board of a foreign-going vessel/aircraft, provided that there are specific Standard Input Output Norms (SION) in respect of items supplied.
• Advance Authorization is valid for 12 months from the date of issue of such Authorization.
• It is overseen by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT).

About Ginger:

• It is an herbaceous perennial plant of the family Zingiberaceae.
• Required Climatic Conditions:
  • Climate: It requires a warm and humid climate (up to an altitude of 1500m).
  • Temperature: The crop performs well in a temperature range of 19°C- 28°C.
  • Rainfall: It requires moderate to high rainfall of about 1,500–2,500 mm per year or reliable irrigation.
  • Ginger does not tolerate frost or prolonged drought.
  • Soil: It requires loose, fertile, well-drained loam or sandy-loam soils rich in organic matter.
• Largest Producer: India is the largest producer of ginger and mainly in Kerala, Orissa, Meghalaya, West Bengal, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Uses: It is most widely used spice both for flavouring and for medicinal purpose. It is used in food preparations, confectionary, beverages, making ginger candy/ preserves. 
• Significance: It contains a vast amount of antioxidant compounds which can be used to treat various inflammatory conditions.
• Ginger supplementation significantly reduces the levels of fasting blood sugar, hemoglobin A1c, apolipoprotein B etc.

About Withholding Tax:

• Withholding tax is withheld or deducted from certain types of income, such as wages, dividends, interest, and royalties, when they are paid to the recipient (non-resident individual).
• It is akin to a tax deducted at source and is paid by foreign investors on interest income they receive on their holding of Indian bonds. 
• It is also known as Retention tax.
• Withholding tax is applicable in the case payments made to non-resident individuals.
• According to Section 195 of the Income Tax Act, if the income is paid in India, the person responsible for payments to NRI must deduct the withholding tax at the time of payment or when the amount is credited to the NRI’s account.
• The amount of withholding tax in India depends on the type of income, the amount of income earned, and the tax laws of the country where the income is earned. 
• The tax rate is decided as prescribed in the Income Tax Act, 1961, or Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement (DTAA), whichever is lower.
• It is collected by the government of India.

About Uzbekistan:

• Location: It is a landlocked Central Asian country.
• Bordering Countries: It is bordered by 5 nations; Kazakhstan (north); Kyrgyzstan (north-east) Tajikistan (south-east), Afghanistan (south) and Turkmenistan (south-west)
• Capital City: Tashkent
• Geographical Features of Uzbekistan:
  • Climate: Uzbekistan has an extreme continental climate. It is generally warmest in the south and coldest in the north.
  • Desert: The Kyzylkum Desert occupies a large portion of the country,
  • Mountains: Tien Shan mountain rise in the east, featuring Beshtor Peak which is the country’s highest point
  • It lies mainly between two major rivers, the Syr Darya to the northeast and the Amu Darya.
  • Lakes: Major lakes include Lake Ayddrkul and Lake Sarykamish.
  • Natural Resources: It has significant reserves of copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, and uranium, natural gas.

About Agarwood:

• It is a species of tree belonging to the Thymelaeaceae family.
• It is also known as Oud, Gaharu or Agar
• The Aquilaria tree is a fast-growing, subtropical forest tree.
• The resin is produced as a defence mechanism due to the intense stress suffered by the trees when they are infected by a type of mold belonging to the Phaeoacremonium species (Phialophora parasitica).
• Soil: Aquilaria can grow on a wide range of soils, including poor sandy soil.
• Distribution: It is mainly found in South Asia’s Himalayan foothills, throughout Southeast Asia, and into the rainforests of Papua New Guinea.
  • In India, it grows in the wild in the Northeast, especially in Assam, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur.
• Applications of Agarwood: It is one of the world’s most valuable aromatic raw materials and is widely used in luxury perfumes, incense, cosmetics and traditional products across the Gulf, Europe, and Southeast Asia.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN: Critically Endangered. 
  • CITES: Appendix II