Why in news?

The PM-SHRI schools scheme has sparked a fresh political controversy in Kerala, as the CPI(M)-led LDF government reversed its earlier stance and agreed to implement the scheme by signing an MoU with the Centre.

The move has faced criticism from both the opposition and within the LDF itself, with the CPI objecting that it was not consulted and reminding that the Left had previously opposed the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, under which the scheme operates.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• PM-SHRI Schools: Model Institutions for Implementing NEP 2020
• States Implementing the PM-SHRI Scheme
• Conditions for Implementing the PM-SHRI Scheme

PM-SHRI Schools: Model Institutions for Implementing NEP 2020

• Approved in 2022, the PM Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) scheme aims to develop 14,500 schools across the country as model institutions showcasing the core principles of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
  • So far, 13,070 schools have been selected, including 1,533 Kendriya Vidyalayas and Navodaya Vidyalayas.
• The scheme covers existing government and local body schools at the elementary, secondary, and senior secondary levels.
• These schools are expected to adopt innovative learning methods such as art-based and toy-based learning, introduce vocational education, and establish skill labs.
• They must ensure foundational literacy and numeracy, zero dropouts, and improved learning outcomes.
• Curriculum will follow either the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) or the State Curriculum Framework (SCF) aligned with NEP 2020.
• Schools will be assessed through a School Quality Assessment Framework, with funding linked to their performance.
• The scheme follows a 60:40 funding ratio between the Centre and states, aiming to transform schools into exemplars of modern, inclusive, and competency-based education.

States Implementing the PM-SHRI Scheme

• With Kerala now agreeing to join, most Indian states have come on board with the PM Schools for Rising India (PM-SHRI) scheme.
• Congress-ruled states such as Karnataka, Telangana, and Himachal Pradesh have implemented the scheme, along with AAP-ruled Punjab and Delhi, which had earlier relented after the Education Ministry stopped Samagra Shiksha funds.
• States Opposing the Scheme
  • Only Tamil Nadu and West Bengal continue to hold out.
  • West Bengal objects to prefixing “PM-SHRI” to school names despite sharing project costs.
  • Tamil Nadu opposes the scheme because it implies adopting the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 “in entirety.”

Conditions for Implementing the PM-SHRI Scheme

• The implementation of the PM-SHRI scheme is closely linked to the Centre’s Samagra Shiksha programme, which shares the same 60:40 funding ratio between the Centre and states.
• Link Between PM-SHRI and Samagra Shiksha Funding
  • The Centre has made PM-SHRI participation a condition for the release of Samagra Shiksha funds, which support key education initiatives such as:
    • Implementation of the Right to Education Act (RTE),
    • Provision of uniforms and textbooks for government school students,
    • Support for children with disabilities, and
    • Reimbursements to private schools for EWS admissions.
  • States that refused to implement PM-SHRI — including Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal — did not receive Samagra Shiksha funds.
• Kerala’s Funding Shortfall
  • Kerala has received no central funds for Samagra Shiksha in 2024-25 and 2025-26, and only a partial allocation in 2023-24, amounting to about ₹1,150 crore.
  • The state has used its own share of funds to cover essential expenses like RTE entitlements, textbooks, and salaries, but scholarships, uniforms, and school grants remain pending.
• Signing the MoU and NEP Clause
  • To access funds, Kerala recently signed an MoU with the Centre, which requires states to implement the NEP 2020 in entirety.
  • However, Kerala’s General Education Minister clarified that the state will adopt only selective provisions of NEP, retaining control over its curriculum and textbooks while complying with central funding norms.

Why in news?

The Ministry of Agriculture has issued operational guidelines to launch the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses from the current rabi season, aiming to boost domestic pulses production and reduce import dependence.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses: India’s 6-Year Plan for Self-Reliance
• Current Status of Pulses Cultivation and Production in India
• Significance of the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses
• Focus on Tur, Urad, and Masoor in the Pulses Mission
• How the New Pulses Mission Differs from the Earlier NFSNM Scheme?
• Implementation Strategy of the Pulses Mission

Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses: India’s 6-Year Plan for Self-Reliance

• Launched by PM Modi on October 11, and first announced by Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman in the Union Budget 2025-26, the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses aims to make India self-sufficient in pulse production.
• The six-year mission (2025-26 to 2030-31) has a total outlay of ₹11,440 crore. Its key focus areas include:
  • Developing and promoting climate-resilient, high-protein pulse varieties,
  • Enhancing productivity and expanding the area under pulses,
  • Improving post-harvest storage and management, and
  • Ensuring fair and remunerative prices for farmers.
• By 2030-31, the mission targets:
  • a 45% rise in production — from 242 lakh metric tonnes in 2023-24 to 350 lakh metric tonnes;
  • a 13% expansion in area (from 275 to 310 lakh hectares) and
  • a 28% boost in yield (from 881 kg/ha to 1,130 kg/ha).

Current Status of Pulses Cultivation and Production in India

• During 2023-24, pulses were cultivated over 275 lakh hectares across India.
• Rajasthan had the largest share with 54.67 lakh hectares, followed by Madhya Pradesh (51 lakh ha), Maharashtra (44 lakh ha), and Uttar Pradesh (30 lakh ha).
• In terms of production, Madhya Pradesh led with 59.74 lakh metric tonnes, followed by Maharashtra (40 lakh MT), Rajasthan (33 lakh MT), and Uttar Pradesh (31 lakh MT), together contributing a major share of the total 242 lakh metric tonnes produced nationwide.
• Nearly half of the total cultivated area and over 60% of production occur during the rabi season.
• Among crops, gram (chana) dominates both in area and output, mainly grown in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Moong ranks second, largely cultivated in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, followed by tur (arhar) grown in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Uttar Pradesh.
• Urad is mainly produced in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra, while masoor (lentil) is concentrated in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.

Significance of the Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses

• India is both the world’s largest producer and consumer of pulses, yet domestic output falls short of demand.
• Therefore, India is forced to rely on imports from Myanmar, Mozambique, Tanzania, Australia, and Canada — a trend that has grown in recent years.
• According to NITI Aayog’s report, India’s pulses demand is projected to reach 268 lakh metric tonnes by 2030 and 293 lakh metric tonnes by 2047. To bridge this gap, boosting domestic production is essential.
• Currently, India’s average yield (881 kg/hectare) lags far behind Canada (2,200 kg/ha) and China (1,815 kg/ha).
• The mission, therefore, seeks to raise productivity to 1,130 kg/hectare, making India self-reliant in pulses and reducing import dependence.

Focus on Tur, Urad, and Masoor in the Pulses Mission

• The Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses prioritises tur (arhar), urad, and masoor (lentil) as these three crops together account for about 34% of India’s total pulses area and make a major contribution to national production.
• However, a large yield gap persists in these crops, which the mission aims to close through targeted interventions.
• Out of the proposed 35 lakh hectare expansion, about 9 lakh hectares will be added for tur, mainly in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and Jharkhand, along with new cultivation in the Northeast.
• Urad cultivation will expand by using rice fallow lands in Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Maharashtra, while masoor will be promoted in rice fallows of West Bengal, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh.

How the New Pulses Mission Differs from the Earlier NFSNM Scheme?

• The Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses replaces and expands upon the pulses component of the National Food Security and Nutrition Mission (NFSNM), introducing broader interventions and stronger farmer support.
• Under the new framework, assistance for Front Line Demonstrations (FLDs) has been increased to ₹10,000 per hectare, up from ₹9,000 earlier, to promote advanced agricultural technologies.
• A key change is the provision for 100% procurement of tur, urad, and masoor by NAFED and NCCF under the Price Support Scheme (PSS) of PM-AASHA for the next four years.
  • PM-AASHA, which stands for Pradhan Mantri Annadata Aay Sanrakshan Abhiyan, is an integrated scheme by the Indian government to ensure farmers receive remunerative prices for their produce and to make essential commodities affordable for consumers.
• Procurement will be done directly from registered farmers through formal agreements, verified using Aadhaar-based biometric or facial authentication. Procurement of other pulses will continue as per regular PSS norms.

Implementation Strategy of the Pulses Mission

• The Mission for Aatmanirbharta in Pulses will adopt a cluster-based approach to strengthen the entire agriculture value chain — from inputs to markets.
• Each cluster will cover a minimum of 10 hectares (or 2 hectares in hilly and northeastern regions).
• These clusters and districts will be chosen from potential pulses-growing areas across India.
• Selection will follow NITI Aayog’s classification of districts —
  • High Area–High Yield (HA–HY)
  • High Area–Low Yield (HA–LY)
  • Low Area–High Yield (LA–HY)
  • Low Area–Low Yield (LA–LY)
• Priority will also be given to:
  • Rice fallow, rainfed, and watershed areas,
  • Districts under PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana,
  • Aspirational, border, and Left Wing Extremism (LWE)-affected districts,
  • Areas under Adarsh Gram Yojana,
  • Regions in the Northeast, Himalayan states, islands, and other backward areas,
  • And any other region approved by the State Steering Committee or notified by the Centre.

Why in the News?

• A recent study has highlighted the sharp decline in the use and literacy of the Dogri language in Jammu and Kashmir, raising concerns over the erosion of regional linguistic heritage despite its official recognition.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Dogri Language (Background, Cultural & Linguistic Significance, Causes Behind Decline, Revival Strategy, etc.)

Preserving Dogri Language: Reviving India’s Endangered Linguistic Heritage

• The Dogri language, once a vibrant symbol of Jammu’s cultural identity, is now at a critical juncture.
• Despite being recognised as one of the 22 official languages of India and one of the five official languages of Jammu and Kashmir, the language is experiencing a gradual erosion from public life, particularly among the younger generation and urban populations.
• According to a recent study, the decline of Dogri reflects a broader global trend of linguistic homogenisation, where smaller regional and indigenous languages are disappearing under the dominance of global and national tongues.
• India, as per UNESCO’s report, leads the world in the number of dialects at risk of extinction, having lost over 220 languages in the past five decades.

The Cultural and Linguistic Significance of Dogri

• Dogri belongs to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European language family and is mainly spoken in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, parts of Himachal Pradesh, and by diaspora communities across North India.
• It is written in both Devanagari and Takri scripts, and is deeply embedded in the Dogra culture, expressed through its literature, folklore, crafts, and oral traditions.
• The inclusion of Dogri in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution in 2003 and its recognition under the Jammu and Kashmir Official Languages Act, 2020, marked significant milestones in its journey.
• However, linguistic recognition on paper has not translated into functional visibility. Dogri remains largely absent from school curricula, administrative communication, and media content.

Causes Behind the Decline

• The decline of Dogri in Jammu and surrounding regions can be understood through three interlinked factors: policy neglect, generational disconnect, and urban influence.
• Policy Gaps and Limited Institutional Support
  • Dogri received formal recognition much later than other regional languages such as Urdu and Hindi.
  • This delay resulted in a lack of infrastructure for linguistic promotion, from teacher training to the development of textbooks and cultural programming.
  • A survey conducted across 20 locations in the Jammu region revealed that 48% of respondents believed the government had failed to provide adequate support for Dogri’s inclusion in education and public discourse.
  • 43% said the language offered little economic relevance, which disincentivised younger generations from learning it.
• Generational Disconnect
  • Dogri’s decline is particularly visible across generations. Respondents above 60 years of age showed full proficiency in speaking and moderate reading and writing skills, while the 21-40 age group showed near-zero literacy in Dogri.
  • Among those under 20 years of age, no proficiency in reading or writing Dogri was recorded, signalling a complete breakdown in intergenerational transmission.
• The Rural-Urban Divide
  • The linguistic divide between rural and urban populations further compounds the issue.
  • While 56% of rural respondents said they actively speak Dogri, only 45% of urban respondents reported the same.
  • Writing proficiency was even lower, 15% in rural areas and merely 4% in urban settings.

Broader Linguistic Context in India

• Dogri’s decline is part of a wider linguistic crisis in India.
• The People’s Linguistic Survey of India (PLSI) estimates that nearly half of India’s 780 languages could vanish in the next 50 years if current trends persist.
• Factors such as migration, economic aspirations, and cultural homogenisation have weakened local linguistic ecosystems.
• Experts argue that the hegemony of English as the academic and aspirational language has pushed regional languages to the periphery.
• This has created a cultural paradox where multilingualism thrives superficially, but linguistic diversity weakens structurally.

Revival Strategies and the Way Forward

• Reviving Dogri requires a multi-pronged cultural and policy approach that focuses on education, awareness, and community engagement.
• Integration into Education
  • Dogri must be introduced at the primary and secondary education levels, ensuring that children develop early familiarity with the language.
  • The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 already advocates the use of mother tongues as mediums of instruction, a provision that could benefit Dogri if implemented effectively in Jammu’s schools.
• Digital and Media Promotion
  • Dogri’s visibility can be enhanced through digital archives, online courses, and media content in Dogri, including films, radio shows, and social media platforms.
  • The Dogri Sanstha and the Sahitya Akademi have made notable contributions, but a sustained state-backed effort is necessary to expand their reach.
• Cultural Incentives and Employment Opportunities
  • Language preservation efforts must tie linguistic skills to economic and cultural incentives.
  • Government jobs, tourism initiatives, and creative industries could reward bilingualism in Dogri and Hindi, reinforcing the idea that preserving one’s language can have practical advantages.
• Census and Linguistic Data Updates
  • The absence of updated linguistic data due to the delay in the 2021 Census has hindered precise policy formulation.
  • Reviving census-based linguistic mapping is essential to identify endangered dialects and allocate funding accordingly.

Why in News?

• The Election Commission of India (ECI) has initiated a Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls in 12 states and Union Territories, covering 51 crore electors, to ensure the purity and accuracy of electoral rolls.
• This is the first nationwide SIR since 2002–2005, aimed at eliminating duplicate, migrated, or ineligible entries and verifying voter eligibility.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background and Significance
• Coverage and Implementation
• Operational Details
• Special Cases and Administrative Coordination
• Challenges and Controversies
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Background and Significance:

• Evolution of SIR:
  • The ECI’s order (June 2025) mandated all registered electors to fill new enumeration forms, while those added after the last intensive revision (2002–2005) must submit eligibility and citizenship-related documents.
  • The first phase began in Bihar, where Assembly elections are due, serving as a pilot model for future nationwide implementation.
• Constitutional and legal basis:
  • The ECI cites Article 326 of the Constitution — which restricts voting rights to Indian citizens aged 18 and above — to justify verifying eligibility (not citizenship cancellation).
  • The process is governed by the Representation of the People Act, 1950.
  • This ensures free and fair elections, one of the basic features of the Constitution.
• Need for SIR:
  • Political parties have repeatedly complained about the “impurity” in electoral rolls due to -
    • Migration and multiple registrations.
    • Non-removal of deceased voters.
    • Wrongful inclusion of non-citizens.
  • The SIR had been conducted 8 times since 1951 and the last intensive revision was conducted between 2002–2005, followed by only summary revisions.

Coverage and Implementation:

• States and UTs involved: The SIR will be conducted in A&N Islands, Chhattisgarh, Goa, Gujarat, Kerala, Lakshadweep, MP, Puducherry, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, UP, and West Bengal.
• Key dates:
  • Enumeration period: Begins November 4, 2025.
  • Draft roll publication: December 9, 2025.
  • Final roll publication: February 7, 2026.
• Excluded state: Assam is excluded due to ongoing NRC process and distinct Citizenship Act provisions.

Operational Details:

• Enumeration process:
  • 5.33 lakh Booth Level Officers (BLOs) to conduct house-to-house verification.
  • All electors must submit enumeration forms by December 4 to remain on the draft roll.
  • Eligibility proof required for those not traceable to 2002–2005 SIR rolls.
• Documents accepted:
  • 13 types of documents, including Aadhaar and extracts from Bihar’s SIR roll.
  • Aadhaar to be used only for identity verification, not citizenship proof.
  • Electors born after July 1, 1987 must submit proof of parents’ eligibility.

Special Cases and Administrative Coordination:

• Bihar’s experience:
  • Bihar’s SIR concluded on September 30, 2025, with electors reducing by 6% (to 7.42 crore).
  • No appeals were filed against Electoral Registration Officers’ (ERO) decisions.
  • This model will guide the second phase of SIR.
• State-specific considerations:
  • Urban areas like Delhi and Chandigarh have low linkage with old rolls due to migration.
  • Weather conditions and local body elections have also influenced state selection and timelines.

Challenges and Controversies:

• Legal challenge: The Supreme Court is hearing petitions questioning -
  • ECI’s authority to verify citizenship of registered voters.
  • The procedure adopted in Bihar’s SIR.
• Political opposition:
  • West Bengal CM termed it an “NRC through the backdoor”.
  • However, ECI maintains that constitutional bodies will carry out their respective roles independently.
• Administrative: Tight timelines and document verification may burden BLOs and EROs.
• Social: Risk of disenfranchisement if citizens lack documentary proof.

Way Forward:

• Transparency and technology: Use of the Voter Portal to help citizens trace old roll entries.
• Electoral integrity: Purified rolls could reduce bogus voting and increase public trust.
• Awareness campaigns: To ensure mass participation and timely documentation.
• Data synchronization: Integration of digital databases to prevent duplication.
• Periodic SIRs: Institutionalizing regular intensive revisions to maintain credibility.
• Stakeholder engagement: Institutionalised consultations with political parties, civil society, and local administration before rollout.
• Legal clarity: Seek SC guidance to define ECI’s powers under Article 326 and the RPA, 1950.
• Document access facilitation: Simplify and digitise the process of submitting eligibility proofs, especially in rural and migrant-heavy areas.
• Phased implementation: Adopt Bihar’s learnings for gradual state-by-state rollout instead of a single nationwide push.

Conclusion:

• The SIR of electoral rolls marks a major administrative reform to restore public trust in the electoral process.
• By verifying eligibility and updating voter lists, the EC aims to strengthen democratic legitimacy.
• However, political concerns and legal scrutiny highlight the delicate balance between ensuring voter purity and protecting voter rights.

Context

• The European Union (EU) and India’s New Strategic EU–India Agenda, announced on September 17, 2025, marks a significant milestone in their evolving partnership.
• Structured around five key pillars; prosperity and sustainability, technology and innovation, security and defence, connectivity and global issues, and cross-cutting enablers, the agenda seeks to deepen collaboration across economic and geopolitical domains.
• Among its most consequential features lies a seemingly technical but transformative proposal: linking India’s Carbon Market (ICM) with the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).

The Promise of the Linkage and the Structural Weakness of India’s Carbon Market

• The Promise of the Linkage
  • At its core, the proposed linkage between the Indian Carbon Market and CBAM offers a pragmatic solution to a pressing challenge: the risk of double carbon penalties for Indian exporters.
  • Under CBAM, the EU imposes a carbon levy on imports based on the embedded emissions in goods, ensuring a level playing field with domestic producers who already pay carbon prices under the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
  • By allowing carbon costs paid within India to be deducted from CBAM charges at the EU border, exporters would be spared the unfair burden of dual payments.
  • This arrangement could incentivise early decarbonisation, align domestic emissions reductions with global trade competitiveness, and reflect a rare case of climate justice in practice, recognising rather than penalising developing country efforts in carbon pricing.
• The Structural Weakness of India’s Carbon Market
  • Yet this vision rests on a shaky institutional foundation. India’s Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), commonly called the Indian Carbon Market (ICM), remains underdeveloped compared to the EU’s mature ETS.
  • While the EU ETS has a two-decade track record of auction mechanisms, strict emission caps, and independent verification, India’s system is fragmented and experimental.
  • Its current credits often rely on project-based offsets or efficiency improvements rather than binding absolute emission caps.
  • For CBAM’s tonne-for-tonne accounting to work credibly, the EU must trust that India’s carbon credits represent verifiable emission reductions.
  • However, the absence of strong regulators, transparent registries, and compliance enforcement undermines that trust.
  • Unless India upgrades its carbon market to a compliance-grade mechanism with legal enforceability, the EU is unlikely to accept Indian carbon prices as valid deductions.

The Carbon Price Gap and Political Economy Risks

• Even if institutional reforms succeed, a major price disparity The EU ETS carbon price fluctuates between €60 and €80 per tonne, while India’s nascent market trades at €5 to €10 per tonne.
• Without price parity or alignment, EU regulators will deduct only minimal amounts, undermining the intended relief for exporters.
• This creates serious political and industrial risks in India. Exporters could face double burdens, paying both the domestic compliance cost and the full CBAM levy, leading to industrial resistance and pressure to dilute carbon rules.
• The resulting political economy tension, between industrial competitiveness and environmental ambition, is a central obstacle.
• Possible solutions such as sectoral carbon contracts or a negotiated carbon price floor are technically feasible but politically delicate, requiring long-term coordination between New Delhi and Brussels.

The Geopolitical Contradictions of CBAM and the Way Forward

• The Geopolitical Contradictions of CBAM
  • Beyond economics, the CBAM–ICM linkage raises geopolitical and sovereignty concerns.
  • India, along with other developing nations, has opposed CBAM at the World Trade Organization (WTO) and in international climate dialogues, labelling it unilateral and protectionist.
  • By agreeing to integrate its carbon market with CBAM, India risks legitimising a mechanism it has formally resisted.
  • This contradiction could trigger future disputes: if the EU deems India’s carbon prices insufficient, exporters may face partial or full CBAM penalties, prompting political escalation or legal challenge.
• The Way Forward: Toward a Cooperative Future
  • Despite its challenges, the CBAM–ICM linkage holds transformative potential.
  • If implemented successfully, it could become a global model for North–South carbon market cooperation.
  • It would protect Indian exporters, accelerate industrial decarbonisation, and strengthen EU–India climate diplomacy.
  • Achieving this outcome requires a phased and transparent approach, where India strengthens its market integrity and the EU provides technical and policy support.
  • Only through collaborative design, clear equivalence criteria, and joint monitoring mechanisms can the two sides translate ambition into action.

Conclusion

• The proposed linkage between India’s carbon market and the EU’s CBAM represents both a visionary step toward global carbon fairness and a minefield of practical and political challenges.
• Its success depends on reconciling divergent regulatory standards, closing price gaps, and navigating geopolitical sensitivities.
• Without careful coordination, this breakthrough risks remaining a symbolic gesture, a promising clause buried in diplomacy.
• But if India and the EU commit to mutual trust, transparency, and shared responsibility, this initiative could redefine global climate cooperation and set a precedent for equitable transitions in the 21st century.

Context

• Drug advertising has been a matter of public concern in India since 1927, when Sir Haroon Jaffer raised the issue of control of the craze for medicinal drugs in the Council of State.
• The concern eventually led to the Drugs and Magic Remedies (Objectionable Advertisements) Act (DMRA), 1954, which prohibits advertisements for drugs claiming to cure or prevent a list of 54 diseases and medical conditions.
• The purpose of this law was to protect citizens from misleading claims and pseudo-medical treatments.
• However, the digital age has transformed the advertising landscape. The rise of social media, search engines, and online marketplaces has created an environment where the spirit of the DMRA is routinely violated.

The Evolution of Drug Advertising: From Legislative Vigilance to Digital Evasion

• The DMRA was crafted at a time when government oversight could effectively target print and broadcast media.
• In the digital era, this model no longer holds. Online advertising operates across borders, managed by algorithms and corporations based outside India.
• As a result, unverified medical advertisements, especially those promoting “ayurvedic, homeopathic, or miracle” cures, have multiplied on the Internet.
• Searches for products such as ayurveda blood pressure tablets or homeopathy diabetes cures routinely display paid promotions under sponsored tags.
• Many of these advertisements claim to treat serious conditions like diabetes and cancer, violating the DMRA’s explicit prohibitions.
• The situation is made worse by promotional videos featuring spiritual figures who claim to cure all diseases using traditional medicine.
• Such practices have turned online platforms into powerful vehicles for misinformation that can endanger public health.

Double Standards in Global Corporate Behaviour and Legal Evasion

• Double Standards in Global Corporate Behaviour
  • A striking contrast exists between the conduct of technology companies in India and their behaviour in the United States. In the U.S., health-related advertisements are tightly controlled.
  • Platforms employ pre-screening systems and adhere to detailed content guidelines to ensure compliance with laws enforced by agencies such as the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
  • False or unapproved therapeutic claims are swiftly removed, and violations invite criminal prosecution.
  • In India, the same companies apply no such rigour. Their advertising policies make no mention of the DMRA or its prohibitions, enabling advertisers to promote unverified medical products.
  • This double standard exposes a clear hierarchy in corporate compliance. Companies obey strong regulations in Western nations but neglect similar responsibilities in developing ones.
• Legal Evasion and Institutional Weakness
  • Technology companies often justify their inaction by claiming intermediary status under Indian law, a designation that shields them from liability for user-generated content.
  • Yet this argument collapses in the context of paid advertising.
  • Advertisements are not user-generated; they are actively solicited, approved, and monetised by the platforms themselves. Contracts are signed, payments are accepted, and advertising slots are deliberately allocated.
  • These are the actions of publishers, not passive intermediaries.
  • Regulatory weakness compounds the problem. The Public Interest Litigation (PIL) filed in 2008 over violations of the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, 1994 (PNDT) offers a telling example.
  • Accountability is further weakened by the legal separation between Indian subsidiaries and their U.S.-based parent companies.

The Way Forward: Reclaiming Sovereignty through Reform

• Addressing these failures requires firm regulatory and legal reform.
• Criminal proceedings against responsible managerial personnel would mark a decisive step toward enforcement.
• Mandating that key decision-makers for advertising and content operations in India be citizens based in India would ensure accountability to domestic courts and laws.
• Such measures would align India’s digital governance with its sovereign right to protect public health.
• Another necessary reform is the conditional revocation of intermediary immunity.
• Platforms that disregard laws like the DMRA should not benefit from the protections granted to neutral intermediaries.
• Immunity must be contingent on compliance with Indian law. Without this condition, the privilege becomes an instrument of impunity rather than innovation.

Conclusion

• The history of India’s struggle against misleading medical advertisements, beginning in 1927 and codified in 1954, reveals a continuous tension between public welfare and commercial exploitation.
• The digital era has intensified this conflict, as foreign corporations exploit legal loopholes and weak enforcement to profit from misinformation.
• The unchecked spread of unverified health claims not only undermines the DMRA but also endangers millions who rely on such remedies in good faith.
• Restoring accountability demands a reassertion of legal authority, the creation of transparent enforcement mechanisms, and the political will to treat violations as serious crimes rather than administrative oversights.

Why in news?

The IUCN has classified India’s Western Ghats, along with Manas National Park (Assam) and Sundarbans National Park (West Bengal), as sites of “significant concern” in its World Heritage Outlook 4 report.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• IUCN World Heritage Outlook
• IUCN’s Global Conservation Assessment
• India’s Conservation Outlook: Mixed Picture for World Heritage Sites
• Why the Western Ghats Are Becoming Increasingly Fragile?
• A Glimmer of Hope for Global Biodiversity Conservation

IUCN World Heritage Outlook

• The IUCN World Heritage Outlook is the only global assessment that evaluates all natural and mixed World Heritage sites every 3–5 years.
• It tracks their conservation status, identifies threats, and highlights best management practices to enhance long-term preservation.
• Implemented by the IUCN World Heritage Team and World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), it provides reliable, transparent, and independent data about the state and prospects of these globally significant natural sites.
• This initiative supports stakeholders in aligning conservation strategies with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF) goals for 2030.

IUCN’s Global Conservation Assessment

• The IUCN’s World Heritage Outlook 4 report identifies climate change, tourism, invasive species, and road development as the four major threats to biodiversity loss in South Asia.
• It categorises sites as “good,” “good with some concerns,” “significant concern,” and “critical,” reflecting their conservation status and urgency of action.
• Based on four assessment cycles since 2014, the report finds that 40% of World Heritage sites face conservation concerns, with climate change emerging as the most pervasive threat and a decline in the number of sites showing positive conservation outlooks for the first time.

India’s Conservation Outlook: Mixed Picture for World Heritage Sites

• The IUCN World Heritage Outlook 4 (2025) shows a decline in global conservation health — only 57% of 228 sites assessed now have a positive outlook, down from 63% in 2014, 2017, and 2020.
• In Asia, climate change has replaced hunting as the most serious threat, followed by tourism, invasive species, and, for the first time, roads and railways, which are now among the top five dangers to natural heritage.
  • Other growing threats include forest fires, encroachment, illegal logging, waste disposal, and road construction.
• In India, four sites are rated “good with some concerns” — The Great Himalayan National Park, Kaziranga, Keoladeo, and Nanda Devi–Valley of Flowers — while Khangchendzonga National Park (Sikkim) remains the only site rated “”
• The Western Ghats, though globally renowned for their ancient ecosystems and 325 threatened species, including the Nilgiri tahr, are now listed under “significant concern”.
• This highlights urgent conservation needs for one of the world’s richest biodiversity hotspots.

Why the Western Ghats Are Becoming Increasingly Fragile?

• The Western Ghats, one of the world’s richest biodiversity hotspots, face escalating threats from hydropower projects, tourism, plantations, and climate change.
• Projects like the Sillahalla Pumped Storage Hydroelectric Project in the Nilgiris involve dam construction across the Sillahalla and Kundah rivers, endangering forest ecosystems and river habitats.
• Unregulated tourism has led to garbage accumulation, often eaten by wildlife such as elephants, aggravating human-animal conflict.
• Commercial plantations are replacing natural forests, while invasive species like eucalyptus and acacia—introduced during colonial times—are spreading rapidly.
• Climate change is driving species like the Nilgiri flycatcher and black-and-orange flycatcher to shift to higher altitudes due to rising temperatures.
• Elsewhere, in the Sundarbans, salinity, pollution, over-extraction of resources, and sea level rise are eroding mangrove biodiversity and threatening iconic species like the swimming tigers.

A Glimmer of Hope for Global Biodiversity Conservation

• Despite alarming trends, the IUCN report highlights positive examples of effective conservation and collaboration worldwide.
• Global Conservation Successes
  • Seven sites in China, including the Badain Jaran Desert, Chengjiang Fossil Site, and Mount Huangshan, are recognised as “best protected and managed” areas.
  • Such examples show that focused policies and community involvement can reverse ecological decline.
• A Call to Action
  • Though Natural World Heritage sites cover less than 1% of Earth’s surface, they nurture over 20% of global species richness, hosting 75,000 plant species and 30,000 animal species — making them vital for ecological stability.
  • The report aligns with the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework, urging nations to halt biodiversity loss through better integration of nature and culture in conservation.
  • Hope lies in local participation and youth engagement, as seen in Mount Wuyi (China) and Sinharaja Forest Reserve (Sri Lanka), where community-driven stewardship has improved protection and awareness.

Conclusion

Described as a “guide for action”, the IUCN’s 10-year analysis serves as a litmus test for conservation efforts — reminding nations that coordinated global action can still secure the planet’s most precious ecosystems.

Why in news?

UK Prime Minister Keir Starmer’s recent visit to India underscored the growing international interest in India’s higher education sector. His 125-member delegation included 14 university vice-chancellors, highlighting education as a key area of cooperation.

The initiative stems from India’s National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which allows top 100 global universities to set up campuses in India to promote the internationalisation of education.

In 2023, the University Grants Commission (UGC) issued detailed regulations for foreign universities to operate in India. Earlier, under the International Financial Services Centres Authority (IFSCA) regulations of 2022, foreign universities were allowed to open campuses in Gujarat’s GIFT City.

So far, 17 foreign universities have received approval to establish campuses in India, including three already operational in Mumbai, the NCR (Gurgaon, Noida, Greater Noida), Chennai, and Bengaluru.

The move is part of India’s effort to raise global academic standards, retain students who go abroad for higher studies, and position India as an international education hub.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Foreign Universities Setting Up Campuses in India
• Courses and Offerings by UK Universities in India
• Why UK Universities Are Expanding to India?
• What UK Campuses in India Mean for Indian Students?

Foreign Universities Setting Up Campuses in India

• Under the UGC’s 2023 regulations, foreign universities ranked within the top 500 globally can apply to establish campuses in India.
• A total of 17 foreign universities have announced plans to set up campuses across India, most from the United Kingdom, with QS World University Rankings 2026 positions ranging from 51 to 558.
  • Many of these UK universities already operate international branch campuses in Malaysia, China, Qatar, and Greece, but for some, such as Bristol, the India campus will be their first abroad.
• Six Australian universities have announced India plans. Among them:
  • Deakin University and University of Wollongong have already begun operations in GIFT City.
  • Italy’s Istituto Europeo di Design, a renowned fashion school, will set up in Mumbai.
• From the United States, Illinois Tech will be the first to establish a campus in Mumbai, while globally, US universities lead with 84 overseas campuses, followed by UK institutions with 46.

Courses and Offerings by UK Universities in India

• Most UK universities setting up campuses in India will offer:
  • Three-year undergraduate (UG) courses and one-year master’s (PG) programmes.
  • Popular disciplines include Business Management, Computer Science, Accounting and Finance, Economics, Data Science, and Artificial Intelligence (AI).
• As per UGC regulations, these universities must ensure identical curriculum, academic quality, and assessment standards as their home campuses.
• They can hire faculty from both India and abroad.
• Campus Capacity and Expansion Plans
  • University of Bristol (Mumbai): To start with 250 students in the first year, growing to 2,500. Faculty will be a mix of Indian and Bristol-based staff.
  • University of Liverpool (Bengaluru): Capacity for 2,500 students by 2030.
  • University of Southampton (Gurgaon): Began in 2025 with 140 students, aiming to grow to 5,500 in the coming years.
  • Tuition fees are significantly lower than studying in the UK — roughly half the cost.
• The new UK campuses in India aim to offer world-class, globally recognised degrees at more affordable costs, making international-quality education accessible to Indian students without the burden of overseas expenses.

Why UK Universities Are Expanding to India?

• During UK PM Keir Starmer’s visit, a joint statement highlighted the “explosion in demand for higher education in India”, creating a major opportunity for UK universities seeking new funding streams.
• India’s growing youth population and the government’s push to internationalise education under the NEP 2020 have made it a prime destination for global universities.
• Financial Pressures in the UK
  • UK universities are facing a deep financial crisis:
    • Tuition fee freeze for domestic students (for several years) and rising inflation have squeezed budgets.
    • Institutions became dependent on international students, who pay higher fees.
    • But with falling international enrolments, revenue has declined sharply.
• Search for New Revenue Sources
• The UK higher education sector is in a volatile environment and must “find new sources of revenue” while maintaining quality.
• Establishing Indian campuses provides a sustainable model for income generation, job protection, and research expansion.
• Strategic Partnerships with India
  • UK universities view India not just as a market but as a strategic partner for long-term collaboration.
  • Partnerships with Indian institutions can help them:
    • Diversify student bases.
    • Strengthen global research collaborations.
    • Support India’s rise as an international education hub.

What UK Campuses in India Mean for Indian Students?

• The UGC regulations enabling foreign campuses in India come amid a sharp drop in Indian students going overseas post-Covid due to stricter immigration policies in destination countries.
  • The UK issued 1.39 lakh study visas to Indian students in 2022, but this dropped to 88,732 in 2024.
• The UK now restricts foreign students from bringing dependents and plans to reduce graduate visa duration from two years to 18 months.
• Similar immigration curbs in Canada and the US have led to fewer Indian students pursuing higher education there.
• Access to Global Education at Home
  • With these restrictions, the arrival of foreign universities in India offers a viable alternative. Students can:
    • Access the same curriculum, degree, and pedagogy as their parent campuses.
    • Potentially study a semester or year abroad through exchange programs.
    • Avoid the high cost of living and tuition overseas.
  • However, experts caution that studying at an India campus won’t automatically guarantee international job opportunities or post-study work visas, which require physical presence abroad.

Why in the News?

• The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) is set to launch India’s first-ever National Household Income Survey to collect reliable data on household income distribution across the country.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• NHIS (Introduction, Background & Need, Challenges, Strategy, Framework, Significance, etc.)

First National Household Income Survey

• MoSPI is preparing to launch the country’s first-ever National Household Income Survey (NHIS) in February 2026, a landmark initiative to gather comprehensive income data from Indian households.
• The survey aims to fill a critical information gap in India’s economic landscape by providing a reliable estimate of income distribution, data that has long been missing from the country’s statistical system.
• According to MoSPI, the NHIS will be one of the “toughest” surveys ever conducted by the ministry due to the sensitive nature of the data being collected.
• The results of the survey are expected to be available by mid-2027.

Background and Need for the Survey

• While India regularly conducts large-scale surveys on consumption, employment, and household expenditure, there has never been a successful nationwide effort to measure household income.
• Earlier attempts, dating back to the 1950s, failed because the income data collected were often inconsistent, in many cases showing household income to be lower than the sum of consumption and savings.
• The absence of reliable income data has long hindered evidence-based policymaking.
• Policymakers have had to rely on consumption data as a proxy for income distribution, which often masks the true extent of income inequality, underemployment, and informal sector earnings.
• Recognising this gap, MoSPI had earlier announced that the income survey was “vital” to understanding structural changes in India’s economy over the past 75 years, particularly the shifts from agriculture to services and the rise of informal work.

Challenges in Conducting Income Surveys

• Income surveys are considered among the most complex and sensitive statistical exercises worldwide, owing to respondents’ reluctance to disclose accurate information about their earnings.
• According to MoSPI’s pre-survey testing conducted in August 2025, 95% of respondents found income-related questions “sensitive” and were uncomfortable disclosing income details from different sources.
• Most also refused to answer questions related to taxes paid.
• This hesitation stems from cultural and psychological barriers, concerns about privacy, and fear of disclosure to tax authorities.
• To address this, MoSPI has emphasised public awareness, transparency, and anonymity assurances as critical factors for the survey’s success.

Pre-Survey Findings and Strategy

• The pre-survey testing of the NHIS questionnaire revealed that:

• 73% of respondents found the questionnaire relevant.
• 84% had a partial-to-good understanding of the survey’s purpose.
• 95% considered income-related data “sensitive” and required assurance of confidentiality.

• To overcome these challenges, MoSPI will conduct an extensive communication campaign to inform households about the survey’s objectives and the strict anonymity protocols.
• Field staff will be trained to build rapport with households, clarify misconceptions, and assure respondents that the data will be used solely for statistical purposes.
• At the operational level, MoSPI will develop a Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for surveyors to ensure uniformity, accuracy, and privacy protection during data collection.

Institutional Framework and Expert Oversight

• The ministry has established a Technical Expert Group (TEG) chaired by Surjit S. Bhalla, former Executive Director of India at the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
• The TEG will guide the survey’s methodology, oversee implementation, and provide recommendations on the presentation and release of results.
• The MoSPI would take a decision on the final release of results only after the expert group’s review to ensure data credibility.
• This cautious approach follows the controversy surrounding the non-release of the 2017-18 Consumer Expenditure Survey, which was withheld due to data quality concerns.

Significance of the Survey

• The NHIS will provide critical insights into income inequality, taxation patterns, and the structure of household earnings across urban and rural India. The data will help policymakers design more effective welfare schemes, social security programmes, and fiscal redistribution policies.
• It will also support India’s efforts to align with global statistical standards such as those set by the United Nations System of National Accounts (SNA) and the OECD’s Guidelines for Income and Wealth Distribution.
• By capturing detailed information on sources of income, including wages, self-employment, agriculture, remittances, and government transfers, the NHIS will enable a more accurate mapping of India’s economic reality, particularly for informal sector workers who make up nearly 80% of the workforce.

Context:

• The recent decision by US President Donald Trump to impose a $1,00,000 fee on H-1B visa applicants risks discouraging global talent and innovation.
• This protectionist stance opens a strategic window for India to attract skilled professionals, innovators, and entrepreneurs back home — but only if Indian cities can offer world-class living and working conditions.
• The article underlines how urban transformation is essential for India’s aspiration to become a $30 trillion economy by 2047 and a global innovation hub.

US Policy and Its Global Implications:

• Trump’s H-1B visa fee: The $1,00,000 levy raises costs for US companies, limiting access to global talent and slowing innovation.
• Brain drain risk: US labs and startups may lose key international talent.
• Shift in global leadership: As the Global South (especially Asia) is projected to drive two-thirds of future global growth, restrictive US policies may erode America’s technological edge.

India’s Opportunity in Global Talent Realignment:

• India can attract returning professionals — scientists, clinicians, entrepreneurs — if it develops livable, well-governed cities.
• Focus areas:
  • Quality healthcare
  • Clean air and water
  • Efficient public transport
  • Affordable housing
  • Predictable regulation and strong research institutions

Urban India’s Growth Potential and Challenges:

• As of now, just 15 Indian cities contribute 30% of India’s GDP. Their ability to drive an extra 1.5% of growth will determine India’s ambition to become a $30 trillion-plus economy by 2047.
• Challenges:
  • Air pollution
  • Water scarcity
  • Urban flooding
  • Solid waste mismanagement
  • Poor municipal governance

Addressing Urban Environmental Crises:

• Air pollution: With India home to approximately 42 of the 50 most polluted cities, vehicular emissions must be curtailed immediately.
• Required actions:
  • Rapid electrification of public transport
  • Enforcing construction dust norms
  • Utilizing the ₹1 lakh crore Urban Challenge Fund for performance-based incentives
• Waste management:
  • The failure of municipal governance: It is evident in the fact that only a quarter of the 1,50,000 tonnes of solid waste generated daily is processed scientifically.
  • Solutions: Infrastructure for collection and segregation, skilled municipal workforce, accountability-based policies, etc.
• Water scarcity:
  • Addressing acute water shortage, which threatens 30 Indian cities, is critical.
  • Steps required: Large-scale reuse and recycling of water, reduce 40–50% pipeline losses, introduce “pay-as-you-use” pricing with subsidies for the poor, etc.

Rethinking Urban Planning and Housing:

• Revising Floor Space Index (FSI) policies:
  • Restricting the FSI to artificially low levels drives urban sprawl and increases commuting distances.
  • Indian planners must shift away from creating urban sprawls by allowing higher FSI and changing archaic regulations that limit optimal land usage.
  • Lessons from Singapore: Dense vertical growth can ensure both livability and sustainability.
• Affordable housing:
  • The shortfall of affordable homes, projected to triple to 31 million by 2030, must be addressed.
  • Measures:
    • Promote higher FSI/FAR.
    • Offer density-based incentives (as in Tokyo, São Paulo) for developers supporting social housing or transit systems.

Transport and Mobility:

• Urban congestion reduces productivity. For example, congestion costs the average city dweller up to two hours daily.
• Solution:
  • Invest in metro systems and electrified last-mile connectivity.
  • Implement Transit Oriented Development (TOD) — focusing planning around rapid transit networks to foster compact, vertical growth, reduce car usage, and enhance productivity through agglomeration.

Strengthening Urban Governance and Finance:

• India currently lacks sufficient urban planning capacity, with Niti Aayog reporting fewer than one planner per city.
• Steps needed:
  • Build a professional cadre of urban managers
  • Grant financial and administrative autonomy to cities
  • Improve property tax collection and digitise land records
  • Explore Land Value Capture (LVC) for municipal revenue (as in Hong Kong)

The Indore Model - A Template for Urban Success:

• Solid waste management: Segregated door-to-door collection, bio-CNG generation.
• Water management: India’s first “Water Plus” city using GIS-based sewage monitoring and treated water reuse.
• Replicability: Indore demonstrates that efficiency, innovation, and accountability can coexist in municipal systems.

Sustainable Urbanisation - The Next Growth Driver:

• Sustainable urbanisation will define India’s prosperity.
• India already operates the world’s 2nd-largest urban system, exceeding the combined urban populations of the US, UK, Germany, and Japan.
• In the last decade alone, India has added 91 million people (a 32% increase) to its urban population.
• By 2030, approximately 350 million people will move to cities with urban growth contributing 73% of the total population increase by 2036.
• As urbanisation has historically lifted nations out of poverty, it will be the biggest agent of growth. Hence, India must embrace it strategically, not reluctantly.

Way Forward:

• Urban reforms: Focus on decentralised governance, digital transparency, and performance-based incentives.
• Sustainability first: Electrify transport, recycle water, manage waste scientifically.
• Inclusive planning: Ensure equitable access to housing, mobility, and a clean environment.
• Talent retention strategy: Create cities that attract and retain skilled professionals.

Conclusion:

• America’s restrictive immigration policies are a wake-up call and an opportunity for India.
• If India can transform its cities into world-class, sustainable, and inclusive ecosystems, it can not only retain but also attract global talent.
• Urban transformation will be the defining pillar of India’s journey toward a $30 trillion economy and a global innovation powerhouse by 2047.

Context

• On October 1, 2025, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Governor Sanjay Malhotra announced a set of measures aimed at internationalising the Indian rupee (INR).
• While these initiatives have broad regional implications, they hold special promise for strengthening the economic relationship between India and Nepal.
• The new RBI policies, allowing authorised dealer (AD) banks to lend rupees to non-residents, permitting Special Rupee Vostro Accounts (SRVAs) to invest in corporate instruments, and establishing transparent reference rates for major currencies, signal a deepening of financial and trade cooperation.
• For Nepal, these developments could mean easier access to credit, stronger trade integration, and a potential transformation in its macroeconomic resilience.

The RBI’s Measures: Pathways to Integration

• The first measure allows AD banks in India to extend rupee-denominated loans to non-residents from Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka for cross-border trade.
• This reform addresses a long-standing gap in institutional credit, particularly for industries engaged in India–Nepal trade.
• The second measure expands the scope of Special Rupee Vostro Accounts to include investments in corporate bonds and commercial papers, thus enhancing cross-border capital flows.
• The third initiative, establishing a transparent reference rate for major currencies, introduces predictability and reduces exchange rate volatility, making INR-based transactions more efficient and reliable.
• Collectively, these steps not only promote the rupee’s international role but also facilitate smoother trade settlements and stronger financial cooperation between India and its neighbours, particularly Nepal.

Nepal’s Domestic Constraints and the Credit Challenge

• Despite steady remittance inflows, Nepal continues to face structural weaknesses in its economy.
• After a partial recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic, its industrial performance remained stagnant due to a lack of business confidence and restricted access to credit.
• Nepalese banks, often controlled by large industrial houses, have been conservative in lending to small and medium enterprises (SMEs).
• This has resulted in credit bottlenecks, weak supply chains, and limited employment opportunities, fuelling economic instability and political unrest.
• By allowing Indian banks to lend directly in INR, the RBI’s policy provides alternative credit channels for Nepalese enterprises.
• Access to competitively priced loans could encourage industrial expansion, improve liquidity, and boost participation in cross-border trade, thus offsetting Nepal’s domestic financial rigidity.

The Dynamics of India–Nepal Trade

• The India–Nepal economic relationship is defined by deep interdependence. India accounts for nearly 65% of Nepal’s international trade, with exports from India exceeding $8 billion and imports from Nepal around $1 billion.
• Indian firms remain major investors in Nepal, contributing 33% of total FDI worth approximately $670 million.
• Despite the asymmetry, the partnership serves as a vital economic lifeline for Nepal, offering market access, investment capital, and technological linkages.
• The exchange rate peg of 1.6 Nepalese rupees (NPR) to 1 Indian rupee has provided monetary stability and shielded Nepal from sharp currency depreciations.
• Maintaining this peg, while enabling new credit and investment avenues, reinforces macroeconomic confidence and trade-led growth.
• Thus, the RBI’s measures can deepen financial interlinkages without disturbing the existing monetary equilibrium.

Strategic and Economic Multiplier Effects

• Beyond trade, the RBI’s measures have strategic implications. Increasing the use of INR in Nepal’s transactions will reduce dependency on the U.S. dollar and mitigate exposure to global currency volatility.
• This can ease pressure on foreign exchange reserves, narrow the Current Account Deficit (CAD), and enhance financial stability.
• A robust INR–NPR financial ecosystem may also promote joint ventures, industrial clustering, and value-added processing for export-oriented growth.
• From India’s standpoint, these steps align with its ambition to make the rupee a regional trade currency, thereby strengthening India’s financial influence and economic diplomacy amid a changing global monetary landscape.

The Way Forward: Implementation and Institutional Coordination

• The success of these policies depends on institutional cooperation.
• The Nepal Rastra Bank (NRB) must interpret, adapt, and implement the RBI’s framework while safeguarding Nepal’s monetary interests.
• Developing compliance mechanisms, risk assessment protocols, and prudential norms will be essential for effective adoption.
• Collaboration on sovereign guarantees, Letters of Credit, and country risk ratings will help institutionalise bilateral trust.
• The RBI’s reputation for prudence, combined with the NRB’s reciprocation and adaptability, could lay the groundwork for a sustainable financial partnership that enhances regional monetary stability and trade competitiveness. 

Conclusion

• The RBI’s October 2025 announcements mark a turning point in India–Nepal economic relations.
• By promoting the internationalisation of the rupee in a regionally inclusive manner, these reforms offer Nepal an opportunity to overcome its credit constraints and enhance its trade competitiveness.
• At the same time, India consolidates its position as a regional financial anchor and a driver of South Asian integration.
• The ultimate success of these initiatives will depend on regulatory synchronisation, institutional readiness, and a shared economic vision.

Context

• The relationship between law and morality has long occupied jurists, philosophers, and lawmakers alike.
• It is an enduring question: should the law enforce moral standards, or should it remain neutral, detached from ethical imperatives?
• From the ancient notion of dharma to the modern constitutional framework, India’s legal evolution reflects this tension between moral values and legal obligations.
• The dialogue between morality and law, far from being a relic of philosophical discourse, remains crucial to the vitality of modern constitutional democracy.

Law and Morality: A Historical Context

• The debate over the intersection of law and morality reached its zenith during the Hart–Devlin debate (1960s).
• Lord Devlin argued that law must enforce moral standards to preserve societal cohesion, while H.L.A. Hart warned against conflating moral disapproval with legal prohibition.
• This theoretical divide found reflection in Shaw v. DPP (1962 AC 220), where the House of Lords affirmed a residual power to conserve not only the safety and order but also the moral welfare of the State.
• The Indian judiciary has also recognised this relationship. In Rathinam v. Union of India (1994), the Supreme Court quoted Justice Frankfurter’s observation in Solesbee v. Balkcom (1949) that the law embodies a system of rights based on moral principles … which comports with the deepest notions of what is fair and right and just.
• This understanding resonates with India’s civilisational ethos, the ancient concept of dharma, which unified legal duty and moral virtue.
• The Tirukkural, for instance, emphasised Aram (virtue) as the foundation of righteous living, demonstrating that law and morality were once inseparable in Indian thought.

Dynamic Interaction Between Law and Morality

• The interplay between law and morality is neither static nor one-dimensional. Sometimes, law leads morality, as seen in the abolition of untouchability, which preceded full social acceptance.
• At other times, law follows morality, as in the gradual recognition of gender equality shaped by evolving public consciousness.
• This dynamic underscores the law’s dual function: to reflect society’s ethical standards and to guide them toward higher ideals.
• Yet, this also presents a challenge: laws must embody fundamental ethical imperatives, not merely majoritarian opinions or transient sentiments.
• For a diverse and pluralistic democracy like India, such balance is essential to ensure justice, inclusivity, and legitimacy.

Constitutional Morality: The Indian Perspective

• The Supreme Court of India has deepened this moral discourse through the doctrine of constitutional morality.
• In State (NCT of Delhi) v. Union of India, the Court held that constitutional morality is more than mere allegiance to constitutional text.
• It includes liberal values, participatory governance, and ethical conduct by constitutional functionaries.
• Similarly, in Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union of India, the Court affirmed that constitutional morality requires the state to act within the bounds of the rule of law and to respect judicial orders.
• These judgments collectively affirm that constitutional morality serves as a normative compass, ensuring that power is exercised with fairness, accountability, and restraint.
• Thus, morality in governance is not optional, it is a constitutional obligation.

Beyond the Courts: Accountability and Democratic Ethics

• Breaches of constitutional morality may not always be legally punishable.
• They can manifest as violations of constitutional conventions or democratic principles, which are best remedied through political and civic accountability, in Parliament, the media, or by the electorate.
• This broader understanding reminds us that courts are not the sole guardians of constitutional ethics.
• The preservation of constitutional morality is a shared responsibility, among citizens, lawmakers, and public institutions.

The Road Ahead: Nurturing Constitutional Morality

• The future of India’s democracy depends on the cultivation of constitutional morality among lawmakers, judges, and citizens alike.
• As Dr. B.R. Ambedkar wisely cautioned, constitutional morality is not a natural sentiment, it has to be cultivated.
• When nurtured, it transforms the Constitution from a legal document into a living moral charter, one that guarantees justice, equality, and inclusion.
• In an era of rapid change, constitutional morality provides the ethical foundation necessary to uphold human dignity and democratic stability.

Conclusion

• The relationship between law and morality is both timeless and evolving.
• From the ancient principle of dharma to modern constitutional jurisprudence, morality has remained the soul of justice.
• To ensure that democracy is not a mere top dressing on Indian soil but its vital ingredient, India must continue to nurture constitutional morality.
• It is this moral consciousness that will determine whether the Constitution remains a document of ideals or becomes a vibrant, equitable reality, the living embodiment of justice in action.

Why in news?

At a rally in Samastipur, Bihar, PM Modi described the newly inaugurated National Makhana Board as a “revolutionary step” for farmers.

Bihar, which produces nearly 90% of India’s makhana (foxnut), has been central to the government’s recent efforts to promote the industry through infrastructure support, branding, and exports.

The renewed focus on “makhananomics”—a term linking makhana to rural development—also carries a political dimension, aimed at appealing to local farmers and cooperatives ahead of the upcoming state Assembly elections.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Makhana: From Traditional Snack to Global Superfood
• India’s Makhana Industry: Bihar Leads in Production but Lags in Value
• Building a Makhana Ecosystem: Bihar’s New Push for Industry Growth

Makhana: From Traditional Snack to Global Superfood

• Makhana, or foxnut, is the dried seed of the prickly water lily (Euryale ferox), a freshwater plant native to South and East Asia.
• Recognised for its violet-white flowers and large prickly leaves, the plant thrives in ponds and wetlands.
• India’s Makhana Hub: Bihar’s Mithilanchal Region
  • India’s makhana production is concentrated in Bihar, which accounts for around 90% of the country’s total output.
  • The key producing districts — Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, Katihar, Saharsa, Supaul, Araria, Kishanganj, and Sitamarhi — lie in the Mithilanchal region, with the first four contributing nearly 80% of Bihar’s production.
  • According to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (2020), makhana cultivation spans 15,000 hectares, producing about 10,000 tonnes of popped makhana annually.
• A Superfood on the Rise
  • Once used mainly in ritual and festive settings, makhana has now emerged as a fitness and wellness food, thanks to its low-fat, high-nutrient profile.
  • Nutritionists endorse it as a healthy snack, fuelling a surge in domestic and global demand.
  • Globally, the makhana market was valued at $43.56 million in 2023 and is projected to reach $100 million by 2033, according to Spherical Insights, underscoring its growing economic and export potential.

India’s Makhana Industry: Bihar Leads in Production but Lags in Value

• Though Bihar produces nearly 90% of India’s makhana, the state remains a minor player in exports.
• The largest exporters — Punjab and Assam — either process or repackage makhana sourced from Bihar, reaping the bulk of profits.
• Lack of Processing and Export Infrastructure
  • Bihar’s underdeveloped food processing sector and poor export infrastructure prevent it from capitalising on the crop’s potential.
  • Most of its makhana is sold as raw material to food processing units (FPUs) in other states at low prices.
  • These FPUs then add value through flavouring, roasting, and packaging, earning significantly higher margins.
  • As a result, farmers and the state government lose out on both income and tax revenue.
• Fragmented Market and Low Farmer Returns
  • The makhana supply chain in Bihar is dominated by intermediaries, leaving farmers with a small share of the final market price.
  • With no organised market structure, producers are unable to negotiate fair prices despite high demand.
• Low Productivity and Manual Labour Challenges
  • Makhana cultivation remains labour-intensive and inefficient.
  • Farmers sow seeds in ponds, then dive underwater to harvest them. Processing — including drying, roasting, and popping — is still done manually, increasing labour costs and limiting productivity.
• Slow Adoption of High-Yield Varieties (HYVs)
  • Although agricultural institutes have developed high-yield varieties (HYVs) such as Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1, adoption remains low.
  • Traditional methods yield only 1.7–1.9 tonnes per hectare, compared to 3–3.5 tonnes achievable with HYVs, as per ICAR (2020).
• Limited Mechanisation and Future Needs
  • Attempts to mechanise the harvesting process have failed due to the lack of efficient machinery suited to pond-based cultivation.
  • Experts stress that awareness drives and technological innovation are vital if Bihar is to move from a raw material supplier to a value-added makhana powerhouse.

Building a Makhana Ecosystem: Bihar’s New Push for Industry Growth

• The newly established National Makhana Board, launched with an initial budget of ₹100 crore, aims to transform Bihar’s makhana industry through improved production, processing, value addition, and marketing.
• Announced in the Union Budget 2024, the Board will train farmers, ensure they benefit from relevant schemes, and promote sustainable growth across the makhana value chain.
• Mithila Makhana Gets GI Tag: Bihar Seeks MSP Support
  • In 2022, ‘Mithila Makhana’ earned a Geographical Indication (GI) tag.
  • Following this recognition, the Bihar government urged the Centre to introduce a Minimum Support Price (MSP) for makhana to ensure fair prices for farmers and promote the crop as a profitable, identity-based agricultural product.
• Infrastructure and Export Vision
  • As per the officials, the Bihar government plans to create an integrated food processing ecosystem with new processing units, cold storage chains, and export facilities.
  • Upcoming cargo-enabled airports in Patna, Purnea, and Darbhanga are expected to play a key role in enabling direct makhana exports.
• Need for Greater Investment and Accountability
  • Experts cautioned that the success of the initiative will depend on adequate financial commitment and consistent policy attention from both the Centre and the state.
  • Past efforts—such as the National Research Centre for Makhana established in Darbhanga (2002)—failed due to neglect.
  • As of July 2024, the centre had only 10 employees against 42 sanctioned posts, no administrative staff, and no full-time director, highlighting the need for institutional focus and accountability.
• The Road Ahead
  • For Bihar to truly harness its makhana potential, the government must bridge gaps in research, training, and infrastructure.
  • It should also focus on ensuring the new Makhana Board delivers real benefits to farmers and processors rather than becoming another underfunded bureaucracy.

Why in news?

The Election Commission of India (ECI) has issued an advisory directing political parties to clearly label all AI-generated or altered videos, images, and audio clips shared online. The move follows growing concerns over the misuse of deepfakes and synthetically generated content that can distort facts, mislead voters, and disrupt the level-playing field during elections.

The ECI warned that hyper-realistic AI content, especially that which falsely depicts political leaders making sensitive statements, poses a serious risk to electoral integrity and fair competition among candidates.

The advisory also specifies standards for label prominence and placement, aligning closely with the draft rules recently proposed by the IT Ministry to curb AI misinformation.

Calling such technology a “deep threat”, the ECI stressed that the ability of AI-generated content to convincingly mimic truth could mislead the public and undermine trust in the democratic process.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• ECI Tightens Rules on Deepfakes: Mandatory Labels, Watermarks, and Disclosure
• ECI’s Deepfake Guidelines Mirror Draft IT Rules on AI Content Labelling
• AI and Threat to Democracy

ECI Tightens Rules on Deepfakes: Mandatory Labels, Watermarks, and Disclosure

• The ECI has expanded its earlier directions on AI-generated and deepfake content to ensure greater transparency during election campaigns.
• Previously, the ECI had instructed parties to remove deepfake posts within three hours of detection and label altered media as “AI-Generated,” “Digitally Enhanced,” or “Synthetic Content.”
• Under the new advisory, the ECI now mandates that:
  • Labels or watermarks must cover at least 10% of the screen area for visuals or the first 10% of duration for audio clips.
  • The label in video content must appear at the top of the screen.
  • Each AI-generated item must clearly name the creator or responsible entity in its metadata or caption.
  • Parties must maintain detailed internal records of all AI-generated materials, including creator identity and timestamps, for verification when required by the ECI.
• These stricter norms mark a decisive step to curb misleading synthetic media and preserve integrity in political communication.

ECI’s Deepfake Guidelines Mirror Draft IT Rules on AI Content Labelling

• ECI latest advisory on AI content labelling aligns closely with the draft amendments to the Information Technology (IT) Rules, 2021, proposed by the Ministry of Electronics and IT earlier this week.
• While the IT Rules are still in the draft stage, they outline similar obligations for social media platforms, including:
  • Requiring users to declare if uploaded content is synthetically generated.
  • Mandating platforms to use automated tools or verification mechanisms to confirm the accuracy of these declarations.
  • Ensuring prominent AI labels or notices on all verified synthetic or AI-generated content.
• Non-compliance could result in loss of “safe harbour” protections, meaning platforms could be held legally liable for hosting unlabelled or misleading AI-generated content.
• The draft rules also define synthetically generated information as content that is artificially created, modified, or altered using computer resources in a way that appears authentic or real.
• Both the ECI and IT Ministry’s frameworks share the same goal — to combat deepfake misuse and preserve authenticity and trust in online and political communication.

AI and Threat to Democracy

• AI while transformative, poses serious risks to democratic systems, particularly through deepfakes, misinformation, algorithmic bias, and voter manipulation.
• These technologies can distort truth, erode public trust, and undermine free and fair elections.
• Deepfakes and Political Disinformation
  • AI-generated deepfakes can create highly realistic fake videos or audio, spreading false narratives about political leaders.
  • During the 2023 Slovakian elections, deepfake audio clips mimicking opposition leaders surfaced just days before voting, potentially swaying voter opinion.
• Manipulation of Public Opinion through AI Algorithms
  • AI-driven recommendation systems on platforms like Facebook, YouTube, and X can amplify polarising or false content, creating echo chambers that manipulate voter perception.
  • The Cambridge Analytica scandal showed how algorithmic profiling and data analytics were used to micro-target voters during the 2016 U.S. presidential election and Brexit referendum.
• Loss of Authenticity in Political Discourse
  • AI tools can automate fake news creation, clone voices, and generate speeches, making it harder for citizens to distinguish between real and synthetic communication. This dilutes informed public debate.
  • In 2024, AI-generated robocalls mimicking U.S. President Joe Biden’s voice urged voters to abstain from a primary election — a clear attempt at voter suppression.

Why in News?

• Recently, two landmark papers published in Nature by researchers from Google, MIT, Stanford, and Caltech claimed a verifiable demonstration of quantum advantage using Google’s Willow quantum processor.
• The studies mark a significant leap in the quest for practical quantum computing—showing that quantum systems can outperform classical supercomputers in specific computational tasks.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Working of Quantum Computer
• Study 1 - Decoded Quantum Interferometry (DQI)
• Study 2 - Measuring Quantum Information Scrambling
• Verifiable Quantum Advantage
• Connection with the 2019 Google Claim
• Scientific and Technological Significance
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Working of Quantum Computer:

• Quantum computers exploit the wave-like behavior of particles at the subatomic level.
• Using the principle of interference, quantum algorithms can amplify correct answers and cancel out wrong ones.
• Quantum bits or qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously (superposition), enabling massive parallelism compared to classical bits (0 or 1).

Study 1 - Decoded Quantum Interferometry (DQI):

• The DQI algorithm:
  • The first paper introduced DQI — a quantum algorithm for optimization problems (finding the best solution among many possibilities).
  • It employs a quantum Fourier transform to manipulate interference patterns.
  • Constructive interference reinforces good solutions; destructive interference cancels poor ones.
• Result:
  • DQI efficiently solved the optimal polynomial intersection problem, finding good approximations much faster than classical algorithms.
  • This demonstrated a potential quantum speed-up in optimization — crucial for applications like logistics, finance, and machine learning.

Study 2 - Measuring Quantum Information Scrambling:

• Meaning of scrambling:
  • Information scrambling describes how data initially stored in one qubit becomes distributed across all qubits in a system.
  • Like dye dispersing in water, information becomes hidden yet preserved within complex inter-particle correlations.
• Experimental analogy:
  • Researchers simulated this by introducing a disturbance (“kick”) in a system and observing how information spread using Out-of-Time-Order Correlator (OTOC)
  • The faint, jumbled echo left after reversing the system’s evolution represented how deeply the information had been scrambled.
• Key finding: Simulating these complex quantum circuits on a supercomputer would have taken over three years, while Willow completed it in about two hours, evidencing quantum advantage.

Verifiable Quantum Advantage:

• Verification:
  • Unlike Google’s 2019 Sycamore experiment on random circuit sampling—which couldn’t be fully verified—the Willow experiment solved a scientifically meaningful and verifiable physical problem.
  • The results can be cross-checked using classical computers or other quantum systems.
• Limitations:
  • Researchers have not yet proven that no classical algorithm can eventually solve these problems equally fast.
  • Independent replication and real-world applications (e.g., physics, chemistry problems) remain the next milestone.

Connection with the 2019 Google Claim:

• In 2019, Google claimed “quantum supremacy” with its Sycamore processor, solving a random circuit sampling task in 200 seconds that would take classical supercomputers approx. 10,000 years.
• However, the task had limited scientific relevance and statistical verification only.
• The Willow experiments now represent a qualitatively stronger and verifiable advancement with physical interpretability.

Scientific and Technological Significance:

• These results are based on principles developed by Michel Devoret, 2025 Physics Nobel Laureate, and now Chief Scientist of Quantum Hardware at Google Quantum AI.
• Quantum processors like Willow can assist in Hamiltonian learning — determining unknown parameters of physical systems by matching experimental and simulated data.
• This advancement strengthens the foundation for quantum simulation, error correction, and scalable quantum architectures.

Way Forward:

• Error correction and stability: Developing techniques to manage decoherence and maintain qubit reliability.
• Scalability: Expanding to thousands of error-free qubits to perform large-scale computations.
• Verification frameworks: Establishing standardized benchmarking for validating quantum results.
• Interdisciplinary applications: Extending algorithms to real-world physics, materials, and chemical modeling.
• Public–private collaboration: Encouraging partnerships to accelerate quantum hardware and algorithm development.

Conclusion:

• The Willow quantum processor marks a decisive step toward practical quantum computing by demonstrating verifiable quantum advantage in solving meaningful physical problems.
• Though challenges remain in scalability and validation, these studies represent a major stride in transitioning quantum computing from theoretical promise to experimental reality — a development with profound implications for science, technology, and computational paradigms.

Why in the News?

• The U.S. government has clarified that the newly introduced $100,000 H-1B visa processing fee will apply only to new applications and not to extensions or status changes.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• H-1B Visa Fee Rule (Background, Clarification, Rationale Behind the Revision, Impact on Indians, Broader Implications, Future Outlook, etc.)

U.S. Clarifies H-1B Visa Fee Rule: Implications for Indian Professionals and Students

• The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has issued a major clarification regarding the controversial $100,000 H-1B visa processing fee announced in September 2025 by the Trump administration.
• The clarification provides relief to existing H-1B visa holders and applicants transitioning from other visa categories, including Indian students, who form the largest group of H-1B beneficiaries globally.
• The clarification has eased anxieties within India’s technology sector, educational institutions, and the global business community, which had expressed concern that the earlier decision would make hiring foreign talent prohibitively expensive for U.S. companies.

About the Clarification

• According to the USCIS, the $100,000 visa processing fee will now apply only to new H-1B applications submitted after September 21, 2025.
• Those seeking visa extensions, renewals, or status changes (for instance, from an F-1 student visa to an H-1B work visa) will be exempted from this fee.
• In addition, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) has been empowered to make exceptions in “extraordinarily rare circumstances” where the applicant is determined to serve the national interest and where no qualified American worker is available.
• Such cases will also be exempted from the fee if paying it could undermine the U.S.’s national or economic interest.
• This clarification has been perceived as a policy softening in contrast to the earlier, more protectionist measures aimed at tightening immigration and limiting foreign worker inflows.

Rationale Behind the Policy Revision

• The September 2025 announcement of the $100,000 H-1B visa fee had sparked widespread criticism from U.S. businesses, universities, and international trade bodies.
• The U.S. Chamber of Commerce argued that the fee was “unlawful” and contrary to the H-1B programme’s purpose of enabling U.S. companies to hire skilled global talent, particularly in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics) fields.
• Small and mid-sized enterprises feared that the fee would make it “cost-prohibitive” to employ foreign professionals, thereby undermining innovation and competitiveness.
• The Chamber also noted that the U.S. education system had “not kept pace with the needs of global businesses”, forcing industries to rely on foreign expertise, especially in technology, manufacturing, and engineering.
• The decision to review and clarify the fee structure came amid mounting legal and political pressure on the Trump administration, which faced lawsuits from industry bodies and concerns from universities over declining foreign enrolments.

Impact on Indian Professionals and Students

• The clarification brings significant relief to Indian professionals, who constitute over 70% of all H-1B visa holders in the U.S., largely employed in the IT and technology sectors.
• For Indian students, the exemption is particularly important. Many pursue higher education in the U.S. on F-1 student visas, later transitioning to H-1B status to work for U.S. firms.
• The exemption eliminates a major financial hurdle that could have discouraged students from staying on to work in the U.S.
• However, concerns remain. The administration has recently introduced a proposal to cap international student admissions to 15% of total university enrolments, with no more than 5% from any single country.
• Experts have warned that this cap could drastically reduce opportunities for Indian students to enter the U.S. education system, effectively limiting who can benefit from the visa rule change.

Broader Economic and Policy Implications

• The H-1B clarification is viewed as an attempt by the U.S. government to balance domestic political priorities with economic realities.
• While there is a growing push for protectionist policies aimed at safeguarding American jobs, the country’s technology and healthcare sectors continue to rely heavily on skilled foreign workers.
• According to the U.S. International Trade Administration (ITA), student arrivals from India fell by 44% year-on-year in August 2025, contributing to a 19% overall decline in foreign student inflows.
• This drop underscores the broader chilling effect of restrictive immigration measures on the U.S. economy and higher education sector.
• Furthermore, India’s Department of Economic Affairs has warned that stringent visa regulations could disrupt future remittance flows and service trade surpluses, given the large Indian diaspora employed in the U.S.

Ongoing Concerns and Future Uncertainties

• Despite the clarifications, experts caution that ambiguities persist.
• Experts noted that there remains a lack of clear standards for determining fee exceptions. It warned that the U.S. government could announce new, abrupt policy changes, creating recurring uncertainty for businesses and applicants alike.
• The broader U.S. immigration environment remains volatile, with debates over economic nationalism versus global competitiveness.
• The Trump administration’s stance reflects a long-term ideological shift toward prioritising domestic employment, even at the cost of slowing innovation in industries dependent on global talent.

Why in news?

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) will deploy Network Survey Vehicles (NSVs) across 23 states, covering 20,933 km of National Highways to assess and improve road quality.

These specialised vehicles will gather detailed data on road and pavement conditions, detecting cracks, potholes, ruts, and surface patches to ensure highways meet safety and quality standards.

The move comes amid rising criticism of poorly maintained highways contributing to accidents and fatalities. Since 2019, NHAI has required NSV surveys before granting completion certificates for new road projects.

All collected data will be processed, analysed, and uploaded to the Road Asset Management System (RAMS) — a centralised digital platform developed by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) for planning, budgeting, and life-cycle maintenance of India’s national highway network.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• NHAI’s Expanding Highway Network: Progress and Persistent Challenges
• How Network Survey Vehicles Detect and Record Highway Defects?
• Private Firms to Conduct NHAI’s Highway Survey
• NHAI to Survey 20,933 km of Highways Across 23 States

NHAI’s Expanding Highway Network: Progress and Persistent Challenges

• The NHAI has made remarkable progress in expanding and modernising India’s road infrastructure, though issues of safety, design, and enforcement continue to persist.
• Significant Progress in Expansion and Quality
  • Rapid network expansion: India’s national highway network has grown by about 60% in a decade, from 91,287 km in 2014 to 146,195 km in early 2025. The length of multi-lane highways has more than doubled in this period.
  • Faster construction pace: Construction speed has improved dramatically — 33 km per day in 2023–24, with a record 37 km per day in 2020–21.
  • Flagship projects: Under the Bharatmala Pariyojana, NHAI is developing economic corridors and expressways, with thousands of kilometres already completed or under construction.
  • Stronger maintenance mechanisms: Both MoRTH and NHAI are prioritising performance-based maintenance contracts for older highway stretches, ensuring accountability and consistent upkeep across the network.
  • Technological innovation: NHAI is adopting drones, GPS, 3D mapping, and satellite monitoring for project tracking, quality control, and environmental compliance.
• Persistent Challenges
  • Safety and design flaws: Despite expansion, poor road design and construction defects — such as improper crash barriers, lack of signage, and uneven carriageways — continue to cause accidents. Potholes and unfinished stretches have also contributed to fatalities.
  • Accidents during construction: In 2022 alone, ongoing construction activities were linked to over 9,000 road fatalities, highlighting the need for strict safety protocols in active zones.
  • User dissatisfaction: Surveys reveal gaps in road quality, safety features, and traffic management, even on newly built expressways, affecting public satisfaction.
  • Weak enforcement: Although road safety laws have been strengthened, inconsistent enforcement — particularly against traffic violations — undermines safety gains from improved infrastructure.

How Network Survey Vehicles Detect and Record Highway Defects?

• Network Survey Vehicles (NSVs) are specialised vans or SUVs fitted with advanced tools like lasers, GPS, high-resolution cameras, video processors, Inertial Measurement Units (IMU), and Distance Measuring Indicators (DMI).
• These vehicles use 3D laser-based imaging and 360-degree cameras to automatically capture road surface defects such as cracks, potholes, and unevenness without human intervention.
• NHAI will deploy NSVs on all 2/4/6/8-lane highway projects before construction begins and then conduct follow-up surveys every six months.
• The collected data will guide pavement maintenance, asset management, and infrastructure planning decisions, ensuring timely repairs and better road safety.

Private Firms to Conduct NHAI’s Highway Survey

• NHAI has invited bids from qualified private companies to carry out the nationwide NSV-based highway inspection.
• As per the Terms of Reference (TOR), the survey will assess 13 types of road defects, including cracks, potholes, rutting, roughness, patch areas, edge breaks, and lane marking quality.
• In addition to defect detection, NSVs will record details such as carriageway and pavement type, road width, shoulder dimensions, topography, medians, land use, and utility locations, enabling a complete digital profile of India’s national highways.

NHAI to Survey 20,933 km of Highways Across 23 States

• Out of India’s 1.46 lakh km national highway network, the NHAI manages over 50,000 km.
• Of this, 20,933 km — covering 91,280 km of lane length — has been earmarked for a detailed NSV-based inspection.
• The survey is divided into five zones:
  • North (2,687 km): Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Jammu & Kashmir
  • West (3,915 km): Rajasthan, Gujarat
  • Centre (4,616 km): Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh
  • South (4,537 km): Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala
  • East (5,179 km): Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
• To ensure transparency and efficiency, no bidder will be awarded more than one package.

Why in news?

In a recent order, the Supreme Court expressed strong concern over massive delays in implementing court decrees, calling the situation “highly disappointing.”

A bench of Justices JB Pardiwala and Pankaj Mithal noted that over 8.82 lakh execution petitions are pending across India’s district courts. The judges observed that justice loses meaning when enforcement takes years, terming the situation a “travesty of justice.”

The court’s remarks underline a long-standing problem in India’s judicial system — winning a case often doesn’t guarantee timely relief, as procedural delays cripple enforcement of decrees.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Understanding Execution Petitions
• Execution Petitions Remain Stuck in Courts
• Supreme Court’s Interventions to Speed Up Execution of Decrees
• What the Supreme Court’s Data Review Revealed?
• What Lies Ahead: Supreme Court’s Next Steps?

Understanding Execution Petitions

• After a civil case ends, the court issues a decree outlining the rights and obligations of both parties.
• However, winning the case is only half the battle — enforcing that decree is the real challenge.
• An execution petition is a legal application filed by the winning party to enforce the court’s judgment — such as compelling payment, vacating a property, or implementing another directive.
• It is the stage where litigants “reap the fruits of the decree.”
• Due to the huge backlog of cases, many successful litigants face prolonged delays in this phase, often fighting a second round of litigation just to receive what the court already granted. As per the law experts, this erodes public trust in the judiciary.

Execution Petitions Remain Stuck in Courts

• According to National Judicial Data Grid (NJDG) data, while a civil suit in India takes around 4.9 years to conclude, an execution petition adds nearly 4 more years — meaning litigants wait almost a decade for justice.
• Nearly half (47.2%) of pending petitions were filed before 2020.
• Key Reasons for Delay
  • Unavailability of lawyers accounts for 38.9% of delays.
  • Court stays on proceedings cause another 17%, and awaiting documents adds 12%.
  • These delays reflect a mix of procedural complexity and systemic inefficiency.
    • Under the Civil Procedure Code, even after winning, the decree-holder must issue notice to the losing party, who can raise objections.
    • Each objection leads to hearings and adjournments, stretching cases for years.
  • Experts say there’s little information on what types of executions—like property sales or simple monetary recoveries—face the longest delays, making reforms harder to target.
  • States such as Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu show particularly high pendency, suggesting local factors like judicial capacity, infrastructure, and case volume significantly influence delays.

Supreme Court’s Interventions to Speed Up Execution of Decrees

• The Supreme Court has repeatedly stepped in to tackle chronic delays in enforcing court orders.
• In 2021, a three-judge bench led by then CJI SA Bobde issued 14 mandatory directions to all trial courts, including a six-month deadline for disposing of execution petitions.
• With delays continuing, a March 2025 judgment in a long-pending property dispute prompted renewed scrutiny.
• Justices JB Pardiwala and Pankaj Mithal used the case to launch a nationwide review of execution petition pendency.
• The bench ordered all High Courts to gather data from district courts on pending execution cases and ensure their disposal within six months.
• Quoting a 1998 ruling, the judges highlighted the plight of litigants who, even after winning, “must again traverse the procedural maze” to receive justice — a grim reflection of India’s slow enforcement system.

What the Supreme Court’s Data Review Revealed?

• While 3.38 lakh petitions were disposed of in the six months after the March order, a staggering 8.82 lakh execution petitions still remain pending across India’s district courts.
• High Courts with the Highest Pendency
  • Bombay High Court (Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman & Diu): Over 3.4 lakh pending petitions — the highest in the country.
  • Madras High Court (Tamil Nadu & Puducherry): Around 86,000 pending petitions.
  • Kerala High Court (Kerala & Lakshadweep): Nearly 83,000 pending petitions.
• The figures underscore the scale and persistence of procedural delays in enforcing court decrees, despite repeated judicial directives to expedite them.

What Lies Ahead: Supreme Court’s Next Steps?

• The Supreme Court has granted all High Courts an additional six months to ensure faster disposal of pending execution petitions through their respective district courts.
• The apex court will review the progress on April 10, 2026, signalling that it intends to maintain close supervision of High Courts until the backlog in execution petitions is significantly reduced.

Why in the News?

• The Gyan Bharatam Mission, launched by the Ministry of Culture, is set to sign MoUs with around 50 institutions across India to conserve, digitise, and promote the country’s vast repository of ancient manuscripts.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Gyan Bharatam Mission (Introduction, Objectives, Key Features, Framework, Funding, Broader Significance, etc.)

Background

• India is home to one of the richest manuscript traditions in the world, with millions of ancient documents in diverse languages such as Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil, Persian, and Arabic.
• These manuscripts embody the intellectual and spiritual heritage of India’s civilisational history, spanning literature, philosophy, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, law, and governance.
• However, many of these invaluable records remain scattered across libraries, monasteries, and private collections, facing the constant threat of decay due to environmental and preservation challenges.
• Recognising the need for a coordinated national effort to conserve and digitise this vast legacy, the Government of India launched the Gyan Bharatam Mission, a flagship initiative of the Ministry of Culture.

About the Gyan Bharatam Mission

• It aims to identify, document, conserve, digitise, and promote India’s manuscript heritage through a systematic and technology-driven approach.
• The mission’s core mandate is to create a National Digital Repository (NDR), a centralised digital platform to make manuscripts accessible to scholars and the public across the world.
• The NDR will serve as India’s largest knowledge archive, hosting digital copies of manuscripts sourced from universities, monasteries, libraries, and research institutes.
• It also seeks to connect India’s rich knowledge traditions with contemporary academic research, encouraging comparative studies and interdisciplinary collaborations.

Institutional Collaboration and MoUs

• The Gyan Bharatam Mission will sign MoUs with around 20 institutes on October 25, 2025, for the conservation, upkeep, and digitisation of manuscripts.
• According to the Ministry of Culture, 30 more institutes will sign similar agreements in the following days.
• These partnerships reflect the mission’s pan-India reach, covering both regional and national repositories.

Cluster and Independent Centre Framework

• To streamline execution, the participating institutions have been categorised as Cluster Centres and Independent Centres:

• Cluster Centres: These institutions will manage manuscript-related activities for themselves and up to 20 partner centres, ensuring collaboration and uniform standards of preservation and documentation.
• Independent Centres: These will focus exclusively on their own collections, handling conservation, digitisation, and cataloguing independently.

• The Gyan Bharatam Mission will provide technical guidance, funding, and monitoring, ensuring adherence to standard protocols for conservation and digitisation.
• Each centre will establish a dedicated “Gyan Bharatam Cell”, comprising experts in linguistics, conservation, digitisation, and research. These cells will act as the nodal communication and implementation teams within their respective institutions.

Funding and Financial Oversight

• The mission’s financial structure is designed for transparency and accountability. Funds will be released in two instalments:

• First Instalment (70%) - Disbursed after approval of the annual budget and work plan.
• Second Instalment (30%) - Released upon submission of progress reports, utilisation certificates, quality verification, and approval by third-party auditors.

• This phased funding ensures that each participating institution meets its conservation and digitisation milestones with measurable results.

Focus Areas and Key Activities

• The Gyan Bharatam Mission has identified six thematic verticals for its partner institutions:

• Survey and Cataloguing - Identifying and recording manuscript holdings across India.
• Conservation and Capacity Building - Training personnel in manuscript restoration and preventive care.
• Technology and Digitisation - Using high-resolution scanners and AI-assisted tools to preserve texts digitally.
• Linguistics and Translation - Promoting the study and translation of rare texts into contemporary languages.
• Research and Publication - Facilitating academic work based on digitised materials.
• Outreach and Public Awareness - Encouraging public participation in preserving India’s intellectual legacy.

• By integrating these verticals, the mission aims to balance preservation with access, ensuring that ancient knowledge systems are not lost to time but revived for modern scholarship.

Broader Significance and Global Context

• The Gyan Bharatam Mission aligns with India’s broader goal of “Reclaiming India’s Knowledge Legacy”, as highlighted during the first-ever international conference on manuscripts held by the Culture Ministry in 2025.
• Globally, the initiative reflects India’s commitment to protecting intangible cultural heritage in line with UNESCO’s Memory of the World Programme.
• It also strengthens India’s soft power by showcasing its civilisational wisdom and promoting cross-cultural academic collaboration.
• Moreover, the creation of the National Digital Repository will complement the government’s Digital India initiative, bridging technology with culture and scholarship.

Context:

• The Government of India is considering a new scheme to attract Indian-origin researchers and faculty in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields to return and work in Indian institutions.
• The initiative aims to capitalize on restrictive research policies in the US under the Trump administration and strengthen India’s domestic research ecosystem.

Background - Harnessing NRI Talent:

• India has earlier attempted to involve NRI scientists through short-term collaborations, but such programs were largely unsuccessful.
• The new plan envisions long-term engagement, offering positions in premier research institutions (IITs, research institutes) and substantial set-up grants for research infrastructure.
• Globally, many countries are creating similar pull factors to attract researchers from the US.

Opportunities - A Win-Win Proposition:

• The scheme could bring highly skilled scientific talent back to India.
• It would help strengthen domestic research capacity, build global linkages, and instill pride among the diaspora in contributing to nation-building.
• The program could potentially reduce India’s “brain drain” and create a “brain gain” effect.

Challenges and Concerns:

• Bureaucratic and institutional barriers:
  • Cumbersome procurement rules, tendering processes, and delays in fund disbursement often discourage research productivity.
  • Administrative red tape forces scientists to spend more time on paperwork than on actual research.
  • Hiring procedures for technical staff are highly restrictive and multilayered.
• Institutional culture and adjustment:
  • Returnee scientists may struggle to adapt to the existing organizational culture of Indian institutions.
  • Differences in work ethics, research environment, and salary structures could lead to professional dissatisfaction.
• Quality of life issues:
  • Poor urban infrastructure, pollution, housing difficulties, and educational challenges for children can act as major deterrents.
  • Many research institutions are in polluted metros, worsening the attractiveness of relocation.
• Impact on existing faculty: Preferential treatment for returnees (higher pay, better labs, grants) may cause resentment among existing staff, leading to institutional disharmony.

Comparative Perspective - Learning from China’s Example:

• China’s “Thousand Talents Plan” successfully attracted overseas researchers with lavish funding, housing, and simplified visas.
• India differs in -
  • Scale and quality of institutions: China has many globally ranked universities.
  • R&D spending: China invests 2.7% of GDP, while India invests only 0.65%.
• However, resentment among native scientists against preferential treatment of returnees has emerged even in China.

Way Forward:

• Increase R&D spending: India must significantly raise its investment in research and innovation.
• Ease of doing research: Simplify procurement, funding, and hiring procedures — creating a “single-window” system for research facilitation.
• Strengthen universities: Expand focus beyond elite institutes (IITs, IISc) to state and central universities to build a broader base of scientific manpower.
• Improve infrastructure and quality of life: Ensure livable conditions—housing, schooling, air quality—for returnee scientists.
• Institutional equity: Design schemes that integrate returnees without alienating existing staff, maintaining morale and collaboration.

Conclusion:

• The proposed scheme to attract Indian-origin researchers is well-intentioned and timely, aiming to turn global academic challenges into India’s opportunity.
• However, without systemic reforms in research funding, administration, and institutional culture, it risks becoming another symbolic initiative.
• For India to truly become a scientific and technological powerhouse, it must create conditions where both resident and returning scientists can thrive — ensuring that our own “sea turtles” find a nurturing ocean at home.

Context

• The deaths of twenty-five children in Madhya Pradesh due to contaminated cough syrup have cast a long shadow over India’s healthcare system.
• More than a tragedy, the incident is a mirror reflecting the deep cracks in the nation’s regulatory and ethical framework governing paediatric medicines.
• While public outrage has focused on the culpability of one doctor and the meagre ₹2.54 commission that allegedly cost young lives, the true issue lies far deeper, in India’s systemic neglect of child-specific pharmaceutical oversight.

Systemic Gaps in Regulation and Children as “Therapeutic Orphans”

• Systemic Gaps in Regulation
  • Despite the Union Health Ministry’s ban on certain cough syrups for children under four, the circulation of contaminated formulations exposes failures at multiple levels of governance.
  • The Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO) and state drug regulators share overlapping jurisdictions that often result in diluted accountability.
  • The tragedy underscores the urgent need to strengthen coordination, transparency, and enforcement within these institutions to prevent such incidents from recurring.
• Children as Therapeutic Orphans
  • Children have historically been treated as therapeutic orphans, a term coined by Dr.  Harry Shirkey to describe their marginalisation in pharmaceutical research.
  • Unlike adults, children’s bodies process drugs differently, yet clinical trials rarely include paediatric subjects due to ethical and logistical barriers.
  • Consequently, paediatric dosages are often extrapolated from adult data, leading to risks of overdose and toxicity.
  • The absence of dedicated paediatric drug development and testing makes tragedies like the recent one tragically predictable.

Legal and Policy Framework: Gaps and Opportunities

• India boasts a wide array of child-focused policies, from the National Policy for Children (1974) to the India Newborn Action Plan (2014), but these primarily focus on labour protection and sexual abuse, not pharmacological safety.
• In contrast, international frameworks such as the European Union’s Paediatric Use Marketing Authorisation (PUMA) and the United States’ Best Pharmaceuticals for Children Act (BPCA) provide clear guidelines and incentives for paediatric drug research.
• India, however, operates only on general guidelines, with no statutory framework to govern paediatric medicines. This regulatory vacuum leaves millions of Indian children exposed to untested, substandard, or mis prescribed drugs.

The Economics of Health and the Need for Essential Medicines

• Unsafe medicines exacerbate the economic vulnerabilities of poor families, who often rely on cheap over-the-counter (OTC) drugs due to inadequate healthcare access.
• The essential medicines concept, introduced by the World Health Organization (WHO), aims to ensure availability, affordability, and quality of critical drugs.
• However, India’s Essential Medicines List for Children (EMLc) remains outdated and inconsistently implemented.
• A systematic revision based on Indian epidemiological and genetic data is urgently needed to safeguard children’s right to health and prevent health-induced poverty among vulnerable families. 

The Way Forward: Towards a Holistic Framework

• A truly protective system must rest on three pillars: regulation, research, and awareness.
  • Regulation: Strict pharmacovigilance mechanisms and zero-tolerance policies against counterfeit or contaminated drugs are essential.
  • Research: Paediatric pharmacology must be grounded in India-specific data, recognizing that global findings cannot simply be transplanted into the Indian context.
  • Awareness: Continuous education for caregivers, pharmacists, and healthcare workers, along with clear labelling and dosage protocols, is crucial for safe medicine use.
• These measures together can build a robust and transparent paediatric drug safety infrastructure capable of protecting India’s children.

Conclusion

• The deaths of these 25 children are not isolated misfortunes but symptoms of a structural failure.
• As India aspires to be the pharmacy of the Global South, it bears an ethical and legal responsibility to ensure the safety of the medicines it manufactures, both for its own children and for those abroad.
• To neglect paediatric pharma-covigilance is to betray the constitutional promise of Article 39(f), the duty to secure for every child the opportunity to grow in health, safety, and dignity.
• The nation owes its children not just grief, but governance, not just sorrow, but systemic reform. Only then can India truly claim to protect the most vulnerable among its citizens.

Context

• The proposal to build a major transshipment port at Galathea Bay in Great Nicobar has been heralded as a symbol of India’s maritime resurgence.
• Supporters claim it will transform the country into a regional hub for trade and security, reducing dependence on foreign ports such as Colombo and Singapore.
• Behind this vision lies a powerful appeal to national ambition and strategic pride. Yet beneath the rhetoric of progress and self-reliance, the project rests on fragile economic foundations and faces formidable geographical and logistical challenges.
• Its promise of prosperity and influence, when examined closely, begins to dissolve into illusion.

Critique of Great Nicobar Project

• Overstated Advantages and Structural Flaws
  • The rationale behind the Great Nicobar port rests on the assumption that new infrastructure automatically attracts maritime traffic.
  • This assumption has already been disproven by India’s own experience with Vallarpadam Port in Kerala, which failed to draw transshipment business despite significant investment.
  • Successful hubs depend on far more than capacity, they thrive on network connectivity, feeder links, stable cargo bases, and long-term carrier loyalty.
  • These factors develop over years of commercial integration and cannot be built overnight.
  • Galathea Bay lacks nearly all of these preconditions. It has no industrial hinterland, no urban or logistics base, and no nearby manufacturing zone to generate cargo.
  • Every container would need to be shipped in and out, creating dependence on costly feeder services that do not yet exist.
  • Geography further compounds the problem. The site lies about 1,200 kilometres from the Indian mainland, too remote to sustain efficient or profitable operations.
• Strategic Ambiguities and Misplaced Priorities
  • Supporters have often sought refuge in the argument of strategic necessity.
  • Establishing a strong presence in Great Nicobar, they suggest, would enhance India’s surveillance capacity and strengthen its deterrence posture in the eastern Indian Ocean.
  • Yet India already maintains an active naval base there, INS Baaz, which fulfils precisely these objectives.
  • The addition of a commercial port adds little to military readiness while introducing a range of logistical and environmental complications.
  • If strategic expansion is the real goal, it should be pursued openly and through dedicated defence channels rather than masked as a commercial enterprise.
  • The blending of military and economic justifications risks diluting both, turning strategy into rhetoric and development into pretext.
• The Myth of a Seamless Maritime Arc
  • Another central claim envisions Great Nicobar forming part of a triad of new ports, alongside Vizhinjam in Kerala and Vadhavan in Maharashtra, that together would create a “seamless maritime arc.”
  • This vision collapses under scrutiny. Each of these ports occupies a distinct commercial environment.
  • Vizhinjam benefits from its proximity to international shipping lanes and may plausibly attract some traffic from Colombo through improved efficiency.
  • Vadhavan, situated near industrial hubs on the western coast, has a natural economic hinterland.
• Great Nicobar, by contrast, is cut off from industrial corridors and shipping networks, with no organic cargo base to sustain continuous operations.
• Treating it as the keystone of an integrated maritime system ignores the geographical and economic realities that determine how ports actually function.

A Cautionary Lesson in Misplaced Ambition

• The Great Nicobar project exemplifies how grand visions of national transformation can falter when detached from economic and logistical reality.
• Its geographic isolation, lack of connectivity, and fragile commercial logic make it ill-suited to the role envisioned for it.
• A world-class terminal with few takers will generate neither development nor influence; it will instead serve as a monument to misplaced ambition.
• Infrastructure, no matter how modern, cannot substitute for an ecosystem of trade networks, industry linkages, and operational efficiency.

Conclusion

• The vision of Great Nicobar as a gateway to India’s maritime dominance rests on a seductive but unsound logic.
• Building capacity does not guarantee connectivity; strategic ambition cannot override structural geography.
• Sustainable maritime growth demands coordination between infrastructure, industry, and environment, not isolated projects driven by symbolism.
• The Great Nicobar port, far from representing progress, risks becoming a cautionary tale of how development divorced from context can undermine the very goals it seeks to achieve.

Why in the News?

• The latest satellite-based data shows that while Punjab’s stubble burning incidents have reportedly declined by 70% in 2024, the total burnt farmland area remains almost unchanged.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Stubble Burning (Introduction, Crop Residue Burning, Trends & Statistics, Data Discrepancy, Policy Interventions & Way Forward)

Stubble Burning in Punjab: An Evolving Challenge

• Every autumn, vast swathes of north India are engulfed in haze as farmers burn paddy residue to clear fields for the next wheat crop.
• This annual cycle, especially prevalent in Punjab and Haryana, contributes significantly to air pollution across northern India, including the National Capital Region (NCR).
• The practice of stubble burning remains one of India’s most persistent environmental challenges, despite several years of government intervention, technological support, and public awareness campaigns.

The Problem of Crop Residue Burning

• Punjab, a leading rice and wheat-producing state, relies heavily on mechanised harvesting using combine harvesters.
• These machines leave behind paddy stubble that is difficult to remove manually. Given the short three-week window between paddy harvesting and wheat sowing, farmers find burning the residue the most cost-effective and time-efficient option.
• While the method helps prepare the fields quickly, it leads to massive emissions of particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen oxides, and greenhouse gases.
• The smoke drifts toward neighbouring states, worsening air quality across Delhi-NCR and beyond.

Trends and Statistics: Is the Problem Really Declining?

• Recent data indicate a complex picture. According to the Punjab government’s satellite-based estimates, the state recorded 10,909 cases of stubble burning in 2024, a sharp 70% decline from 36,663 cases in 2023.
• This drop has been attributed to a mix of factors, including widespread flooding in mid-2024, which left large stretches of farmland inundated, and government-led initiatives promoting crop residue management.
• However, while the number of incidents has declined, the total burnt area has not shown a corresponding reduction.
• Data from the Punjab Remote Sensing Centre (PRSC) and the Punjab Pollution Control Board (PPCB) reveal that in 2024, nearly 19.17 lakh hectares of farmland were affected by stubble burning, almost identical to 19.14 lakh hectares in 2023.
• This suggests that although fewer fire incidents are being recorded, the fires that do occur are covering larger areas or are being underreported by existing detection systems.

Understanding the Data Discrepancy

• Experts point out that the apparent contradiction arises from technical and observational limitations in the way fire incidents are recorded.
• Satellite systems such as MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) and VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) detect fires based on thermal infrared imaging, essentially identifying heat anomalies on the Earth’s surface.
• However, these satellites pass over Punjab only a few times a day, often missing short-lived or smaller fires that occur in the late afternoon or evening, which are common in Punjab’s fragmented landholdings.
• A study by the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Mohali, found that cloud cover, haze, and the short duration of many farm fires lead to significant underreporting.
• Additionally, as farmers become aware of satellite monitoring, some have started covering up burnt patches or conducting burns strategically to avoid detection.

Advances in Monitoring and the Role of New Technologies

• Despite these limitations, advances in optical satellite imaging are improving accuracy.
• According to experts, optical sensors like Sentinel-2 can detect post-fire discolouration and burn scars, providing a more precise estimate of the total burnt area even when thermal sensors miss direct fire events.
• They emphasise that future assessments must integrate thermal and optical satellite observations, supported by ground-based verification, to accurately capture both the number of incidents and the extent of damage.

Policy Interventions and Way Forward

• The Central and Punjab governments have undertaken several initiatives over the years to tackle the stubble burning problem. These include:

• Subsidised Crop Residue Management (CRM) Machines: Distribution of happy seeders, super straw management systems, and mulchers to promote in-situ residue management.
• Ex-situ Biomass Utilisation: Encouraging biomass-based power plants and ethanol production to use paddy straw.
• Financial Incentives: Direct benefit transfers to farmers adopting non-burning methods.
• Monitoring and Enforcement: Deployment of real-time monitoring via satellites and drones, coupled with local enforcement by district administrations.

• However, experts argue that these measures need long-term economic incentives, not just penalties or machinery subsidies.
• Shifting to short-duration paddy varieties, promoting crop diversification, and ensuring timely procurement and financial compensation for alternative practices are crucial for sustainable change.

Rethinking Metrics of Success

• While the declining number of recorded fires is encouraging, it is not a complete measure of progress. Thus, future assessments must focus not just on the number of incidents but also on fire intensity, duration, and emission load to accurately gauge environmental impact.
• In the long term, the fight against stubble burning will depend on integrated policies combining technology, economics, and behavioural change, ensuring that sustainable practices are both viable and profitable for Punjab’s farmers.

Context

• International cooperation among states has led to the proliferation of intergovernmental organisations (IOs) tasked with administering treaties, promoting development, and managing global or regional issues.
• These entities, such as the United Nations (UN) or the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), occupy a central position in global governance.
• Yet, their increasing influence has raised a complex legal question: to what extent are IOs subject to the jurisdiction of the domestic courts of the host state, and when should they be immune?
• This issue, though often overlooked, is of particular importance for countries like India, which host several international organisations within their territories.

The Basis of IO Immunity

• The immunity of IOs is not uniform but rather determined by the interplay of three key legal instruments: the founding treaty of the organisation, the headquarters agreement between the IO and the host state, and any relevant domestic legislation.
• The theoretical justification for such immunity is grounded in the doctrine of functional necessity.
• According to this principle, immunity is essential for IOs to perform their functions effectively and without undue interference from national jurisdictions.
• However, as legal scholars such as Jan Klabbers argue, the functional necessity thesis is not without its challenges.
• While immunity is intended to protect organisational independence, it can also shield IOs from accountability when they act arbitrarily or in violation of individual rights.
• This tension between functionality and justice lies at the heart of the modern debate on IO immunity.

Judicial Practice and Emerging Trends

• Courts around the world have frequently grappled with the question of IO immunity, particularly in employment disputes between staff members and their organisations.
• Traditionally, national courts have upheld IO immunity, emphasizing the need to preserve institutional autonomy.
• Yet, this position has evolved. Increasingly, courts now assess the human rights impact of their immunity decisions, a shift highlighted by international lawyer August Reinisch.
• The turning point lies in whether denying a domestic court’s jurisdiction leaves the aggrieved individual without any remedy.
• If immunity results in a denial of justice, courts have begun to reconsider its application.
• This marks a significant shift from a purely functionalist approach toward one grounded in access to justice and human rights protection.

The Role of Alternative Remedies

• A consistent theme in comparative jurisprudence is that IO immunity is contingent upon the availability of adequate alternative remedies.
• If an organisation provides an independent and impartial mechanism for dispute resolution, such as an administrative tribunal or arbitration, the domestic court should, in principle, respect its immunity.
• However, the mere theoretical existence of such a mechanism is insufficient.
• The Italian Supreme Court’s decision in Drago v. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute exemplifies this standard: only an independent and impartial judicial remedy qualifies as a valid alternative.
• Similarly, the Belgian court in Siedler v. Western European Union rejected an IO’s immunity where the alternative forum did not guarantee a fair trial.
• Likewise, the French case of Banque Africaine de Développement v. Degboe demonstrated that immunity cannot be upheld if the IO establishes an alternative remedy after the fact or one inaccessible to the complainant.
• These cases collectively underline a growing international consensus: IOs must ensure that their internal dispute mechanisms are not merely nominal but substantively just, accessible, and effective.

Assessing the Effectiveness of Alternative Mechanisms

• Determining whether an IO’s alternative mechanism is effective requires examining several practical considerations.
• Key questions include:
  • Has the IO established a clear and functional arbitration process for employment disputes?
  • Does it maintain a panel of independent and impartial arbitrators?
  • Has it affiliated with any recognised arbitral institution or adopted credible procedural rules?
  • Crucially, has the organisation waived its immunity with respect to the supervisory role of domestic courts in such arbitrations?
• If these safeguards are absent, arbitration, or any other internal process, cannot be considered a genuine alternative.
• In such cases, the IO’s invocation of immunity risks becoming a tool of impunity rather than a mechanism of functionality.

Conclusion

• The immunity of international organisations remains a cornerstone of international institutional law, protecting their independence and enabling them to function across borders.
• Yet, this immunity cannot be absolute; as judicial practice increasingly reflects, immunity must be balanced with accountability.
• IOs cannot operate in a legal vacuum that denies justice to individuals affected by their actions.
• The emerging global trend toward conditional immunity, based on the adequacy of alternative remedies, represents a crucial step in reconciling the principles of international functionality with those of fairness and human rights.

Context

• Eighty years after its founding, the United Nations (UN) stands as both a monument to human aspiration and a mirror reflecting the world’s contradictions.
• Conceived in the aftermath of the Second World War, it was envisioned not as a symbol of victory but as a safeguard against humanity’s worst instincts, a mechanism for peace, justice, and cooperation.
• Through reflection, personal testimony, and political critique, the UN remains indispensable in an increasingly fragmented world.

A Historical Reflection and The Erosion of Consensus

• A Historical Reflection: From Tragedy to Transformation
  • The UN’s creation was born of tragedy rather than triumph, a theme that sets a tone of sober realism.
  • The contrast between failure and success, Rwanda and Srebrenica on one side, East Timor and Namibia on the other, captures the UN’s dual nature as both flawed and essential.
  • Its legitimacy lies not in perfection but in persistence.
• The Erosion of Consensus: A Changing Global Order
  • The world for which the UN was created no longer exists.
  • The bipolar order of 1945 gave way to American dominance and now to a fragmented, multipolar landscape.
  • This diffusion of power has weakened the post-war consensus and strained the institutions built to preserve it.
  • Nationalism, once a force for liberation, increasingly challenges multilateralism, while populist distrust erodes faith in collective decision-making.
  • Within this fractured environment, the UN’s founding principles, sovereign equality, peaceful resolution of disputes, and collective security, appear both vital and vulnerable.
  • The Security Council, frozen in the power dynamics of 1945, no longer reflects present realities.
  • Reform is not merely desirable but necessary if the UN is to retain legitimacy and function effectively.

The Question of Representation: India and the Security Council

• India’s exclusion from permanent membership in the Security Council illustrates the deep structural inequities of the current system.
• As the world’s most populous nation, its largest democracy, a significant peacekeeping contributor, and a growing economic force, India embodies the values of the UN Charter.
• Yet its absence from the Council’s permanent ranks remains a glaring anomaly.
• Such exclusion weakens both the moral and operational credibility of the Council.
• India’s demand for inclusion transcends the pursuit of power; it represents a call for fairness and equity in global governance.
• A system that continues to privilege outdated hierarchies risks irrelevance and alienation among the very nations it claims to serve.

India’s Strategic Autonomy and the Call for Reform

• India’s long-standing commitment to sovereignty and strategic autonomy aligns with the broader critique of global governance.
• Its foreign policy avoids entanglement in great-power rivalries while promoting regional stability and multipolar dialogue.
• This approach reflects a vision of global order founded on dignity rather than dominance, one where cooperation is not dictated by hierarchy but shaped by shared values.
• Reform of the Security Council, therefore, must move beyond power redistribution to embrace representation and principle.
• A pluralistic world requires plural voices. Institutions that fail to recognize this will struggle to command trust or moral authority.

The Path Forward: Reform, Agility, and Moral Courage

• For the UN to thrive in the 21st century, it must become more representative, agile, and ethically grounded.
• Reforming the Security Council is the first step toward restoring legitimacy, but structural change alone is insufficient.
• The organisation must adapt to crises that move faster than traditional diplomacy, through digital modernization, streamlined decision-making, and empowered field operations.
• Equally crucial is the reclamation of moral authority. In an age of disinformation and division, the UN’s ability to speak truth to power depends on courage and consistency.
• Yet this moral voice cannot stand without political and financial commitment from member states.
• Chronic underfunding and the politicisation of contributions undermine the UN’s capacity to act, revealing a troubling irony: the institution most needed to manage global crises is being weakened by those with the greatest capacity to sustain it.

Conclusion

• The United Nations at eighty is neither relic nor panacea; It is an unfinished project, a reflection of humanity’s contradictions and hopes.
• Its failures are real, from bureaucratic inertia to geopolitical paralysis, yet its achievements remain profound.
• To dismiss it would be to surrender the belief that humanity can govern itself through cooperation rather than coercion.
• As Dag Hammarskjöld observed, the UN was created not to take mankind to heaven, but to save humanity from hell.

Why in News?

• Recently, the U.S. President Donald Trump imposed sweeping sanctions on Russia’s two largest oil companies — Rosneft and Lukoil — as part of escalating efforts to cut off funding for Russia’s ongoing war in Ukraine.
• The move has implications for global oil markets, India’s energy strategy, and the India–U.S. relationship.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background - Sanctions Amid Prolonged Conflict
• India’s Position and Compliance
• Economic and Diplomatic Fallout
• International Reactions
• Strategic Implications for India
• Way Forward
• Conclusion

Background - Sanctions Amid Prolonged Conflict:

• The Russia–Ukraine war, now in its fourth year, continues to strain global diplomacy and energy markets.
• The new U.S. sanctions target Rosneft and Lukoil, responsible for over 5% of global oil output, contributing over 5 million barrels per day (mbd) globally, including 2 mbd in seaborne exports.
• The U.S. Treasury has given companies time till November 21 to wind down transactions with these entities, to curb Russia’s oil revenue, which funds nearly one-fourth of its federal budget and sustains the war effort.

India’s Position and Compliance:

• India’s position:
  • India, the second-largest buyer of Russian crude after China (with over 35% of total imports sourced from Russia in 2025), faces pressure to reduce imports.
  • Historically, India avoided oil imports from Iran and Venezuela after similar U.S. sanctions, signalling a possible precedent.
  • President Trump claimed India has agreed to reduce oil purchases from Russia to “almost nothing” by year-end.
  • The Indian PM has reportedly assured cooperation while balancing India’s energy security needs.
• Private refiners’ response:
  • Reliance Industries, operating the world’s largest refinery at Jamnagar, plans to halt or reduce imports, including its long-term deal with Rosneft (approx. 500,000 barrels/day).
  • Nayara Energy, partly owned by Rosneft, has remained silent but is expected to adjust supply chains.
• Public sector refiners’ review:
  • IOC, BPCL, and HPCL are reassessing trade documents to ensure no direct dealings with sanctioned firms.
  • However, some oil may still enter India via intermediaries, highlighting challenges in total disengagement.

Economic and Diplomatic Fallout:

• Trade tensions:
  • The U.S. has doubled tariffs on Indian goods to 50%, adding a 25% punitive duty on Russian crude imports.
  • India termed the move “unfair, unjustified, and unreasonable.”
  • Negotiations are underway for a bilateral trade deal that could reduce tariffs in exchange for reduced Russian oil imports.
• Impact on global oil markets:
  • Oil prices surged 3% following the sanctions.
  • The sanctions could disrupt global supply chains, particularly in Asia, where demand remains high.

International Reactions:

• Russia dismissed the sanctions, claiming “immunity” to Western restrictions and pointing out that its revenue comes mainly from taxing output rather than exports.
• Ukraine’s President Volodymyr Zelenskyy welcomed the move but urged for stronger measures to pressure Moscow into a ceasefire.
• The European Union is considering using frozen Russian assets to fund a €140 billion loan for Kyiv’s reconstruction.

Strategic Implications for India:

• India faces a policy dilemma - balancing strategic autonomy, energy security, and geopolitical alignment.
• The shift could push India to diversify oil imports from Middle Eastern and African suppliers.
• Maintaining stable ties with both Washington and Moscow will test India’s multi-alignment diplomacy.

Way Forward:

• Diversification of energy sources: Strengthen ties with Gulf nations, the U.S., and Africa for stable supplies.
• Negotiated flexibility: India should seek exemptions or phased compliance from U.S. sanctions.
• Strategic oil reserves: Enhance domestic reserves to cushion against supply disruptions.
• Diplomatic balancing: Continue pursuing strategic autonomy within frameworks like QUAD, SCO and BRICS.

Conclusion:

• The latest U.S. sanctions signify a sharp escalation in the economic front of the Ukraine conflict, with wide-ranging repercussions for global energy markets and India’s foreign policy.
• For India, aligning with global sanctions while preserving energy security and strategic independence will remain the central challenge in the evolving multipolar world order.

Why in news?

• The Indian government has proposed draft rules mandating AI-generated content labelling on social media platforms like YouTube and Instagram to curb the spread of deepfakes and synthetic media.
• Under the amendments to the IT Rules, 2021, platforms must:
  • Ask users to declare whether uploaded content is AI-generated.
  • Ensure such content carries permanent labels or metadata identifiers.
  • For videos, the label must cover 10% of the screen area; for audio, it must play during the first 10% of duration.
• The move follows rising concerns over digitally altered videos, such as the 2023 Rashmika Mandanna deepfake, which went viral and prompted Prime Minister Narendra Modi to warn that deepfakes pose a new national crisis.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India’s Draft Rules for Labelling AI-Generated Content
• Existing AI Labelling Practices and India’s Stricter Proposal
• Bollywood Pushes Back as Deepfakes Threaten Celebrity Rights
• How Global Regulations Are Responding to the Deepfake Challenge?

India’s Draft Rules for Labelling AI-Generated Content

• The proposed IT Rules amendments require social media platforms to:
  • Ask users to declare if uploaded material is AI-generated or synthetic.
  • Use automated tools to verify such declarations.
  • Clearly label confirmed AI-generated content with a visible notice.
• If platforms fail to comply, they risk losing legal immunity under safe harbour provisions, making them liable for unverified or unlabeled synthetic content.
• The draft also defines “synthetically generated information” as content created, altered, or modified using computer algorithms in a way that appears authentic or real.

Existing AI Labelling Practices and India’s Stricter Proposal

• Platforms like Meta and Google already use AI content labels, asking creators to declare if content was made or modified using AI.
  • Instagram tags such posts with an “AI Info” label, though enforcement is inconsistent.
  • YouTube adds an “Altered or Synthetic Content” tag, explaining how AI influenced the video’s creation.
• Meta has also partnered with other tech firms under the Partnership on AI (PAI) to develop common identification standards and tools to detect invisible AI markers across platforms like Google, OpenAI, Adobe, and Midjourney.
• However, these global measures are mostly reactive, activated after content is flagged.
• In contrast, India’s proposed rules require companies to proactively verify and label AI-generated content using automated detection tools, even without user notification.

Bollywood Pushes Back as Deepfakes Threaten Celebrity Rights

• The rise of AI-generated deepfakes has alarmed India’s entertainment industry, prompting stars like Amitabh Bachchan, Aishwarya Rai, Akshay Kumar, and Hrithik Roshan to take legal action to protect their personality rights — their likeness, voice, and image.
• Experts note that India lacks explicit legal protection for personality rights, relying instead on a patchwork of existing laws for limited safeguards.
• The issue gained attention after the production company behind Raanjhanaa reportedly used AI to alter the film’s ending without the consent of its director and actors.
• This highlighted the urgent need for clearer legal frameworks against deepfakes in Indian entertainment.

How Global Regulations Are Responding to the Deepfake Challenge?

• Countries worldwide are introducing AI labelling and protection laws to curb the spread of deepfakes and synthetic media.
• European Union: The AI Act mandates that all AI-generated or altered content — including text, audio, video, and images — must be clearly labelled in a machine-readable format. Entities using AI for public-interest content must also disclose artificial generation or alteration.
• China: Recently enforced AI labelling rules require visible markers for chatbots, voice synthesis, face swaps, and scene editing. Hidden watermarks can be used for other AI content. Platforms must detect, label, and alert users about AI-generated material.
• Denmark: Proposes giving citizens copyright ownership over their likeness, allowing them to demand removal of any digitally altered content created without consent — a pioneering move in personal image rights protection.

Why in news?

The Supreme Court bench, led by the Chief Justice of India, has directed the Jharkhand government to formally notify a new wildlife sanctuary in Saranda, one of India’s richest Sal Forest regions.

The move highlights Saranda’s ecological importance and its history of illegal mining, drawing national attention to the need for stronger biodiversity protection in this forested area spanning southwest Jharkhand and Odisha.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Background of the Case
• Saranda’s Ecological Significance and the Impact of Mining
• Jharkhand’s Position Before the Supreme Court
• Mining Significance of the Region
• The Balancing Act

Background of the Case

• The Supreme Court’s direction to the Jharkhand government stems from a plea seeking compliance with a July 2022 order of the National Green Tribunal (NGT), which had asked the state to consider declaring Saranda Forest as a wildlife sanctuary.
• The plea before the NGT called for the notification of an eco-sensitive zone in the Saranda/Sasangada region of West Singhbhum district, Jharkhand.
• The 1968 “Game Sanctuary” Argument
  • The petitioner claimed Saranda had been declared a “game sanctuary” in 1968 under undivided Bihar.
  • Under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, such earlier declarations automatically become “deemed sanctuaries.”
  • However, the NGT found no official records confirming this status but recognised Saranda as one of India’s finest Sal forests and directed the Jharkhand government to re-examine its sanctuary potential.
• Supreme Court Steps In
  • After Jharkhand failed to act on the NGT’s order, the case reached the Supreme Court.
  • A CJI-led Bench in November 2024 directed the state to expedite the process and, between November 2024 and September 2025, criticised delays and non-compliance.
  • The Court even warned of contempt when officials tried to alter proposed boundaries to accommodate mining areas.

Saranda’s Ecological Significance and the Impact of Mining

• Located in West Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, the Saranda Forest Division spans 856 sq km, of which 816 sq km is reserved forest and the rest protected forest.
• The name Saranda means “seven hundred hills”, reflecting the region’s undulating terrain and dense Sal forests.
• The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has recognised Saranda as a biological and ecological hotspot, historically known for its rich biodiversity.
• Biodiversity and Wildlife Corridors
  • Saranda supports diverse wildlife, including elephants, four-horned antelope, and sloth bears.
  • It also contains three elephant corridors, ensuring ecological connectivity with neighbouring forests across Jharkhand and Odisha.
  • Although tigers have been sighted in the past, they have not established a resident population in recent years due to habitat fragmentation and human pressure.
• Mining and Habitat Degradation
  • The forest has suffered from intensive and illegal mining, particularly of iron ore and manganese, leading to loss of wildlife density and habitat fragmentation.
  • The Indian Council of Forest Research and Education (ICFRE), in its Carrying Capacity Study of the Saranda–Chaibasa region, confirmed that mining had severely affected forest ecology and wildlife health.
• Findings from Ecological Studies
  • The WII’s 2016 assessment revealed a decline in butterfly, mammal, and bird populations, showing a negative correlation between proximity to mines and species richness.
  • It recommended urgent protection measures, including the creation of a wildlife sanctuary, to curb further ecological degradation.
• Decline in Elephant Population
  • Saranda once hosted a thriving elephant population, but continued habitat loss has forced many herds to migrate to Chhattisgarh and Odisha.
  • According to the latest 2025 Elephant Estimation Report, Jharkhand now has only 217 elephants, distributed between two main clusters — Palamau and Singhbhum (which includes Saranda).
  • Elephant corridors to the south and east of Saranda are now under severe stress, further isolating herds and threatening their long-term survival.

Jharkhand’s Position Before the Supreme Court

• Jharkhand government has told the Supreme Court that while it supports the declaration of Saranda as a wildlife sanctuary, it also wants to ensure that the rights of tribals and forest dwellers are fully protected.
• The state emphasised that Saranda falls under the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution and is home to Ho, Munda, and allied Adivasi communities, including particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs).
• The government argued that declaring the area as a sanctuary could criminalise traditional livelihood activities, thereby violating the Forest Rights Act (FRA) and the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).

Mining Significance of the Region

• The Saranda region is crucial for India’s mining industry, holding about 26% of the country’s total iron ore reserves.
• According to an interlocutory application filed by the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL), active mines in and around Saranda currently produce 10–15 million tonnes of iron ore annually, roughly 5% of India’s total output.
• History of Illegal Mining in Saranda
  • The controversy over mining in Saranda is long-standing. Under the UPA government, the Justice M. B. Shah Commission of Inquiry investigated illegal mining in Jharkhand, uncovering widespread violations.
  • The Commission reported illegal extraction of iron ore worth ₹14,403 crore and manganese worth ₹138 crore, carried out in violation of mining and environmental laws.
• Efforts Toward Sustainable Mining
  • Following the Shah Commission’s recommendations, the Union Environment Ministry prepared a Sustainable Mining Plan for the Saranda region.
  • The plan designated “go” and “no-go” zones for iron ore mining, with an annual production cap of 64 million tonnes, adjustable based on environmental sustainability.
  • This framework was meant to balance economic interests with ecological preservation, but Saranda continues to face challenges from mining pressure and habitat degradation.

The Balancing Act

• The Supreme Court’s ongoing oversight now places Saranda at the intersection of conservation and development.
• While Jharkhand stresses tribal rights and economic dependence on mining, the court’s focus remains on biodiversity protection, ensuring that the sanctuary declaration proceeds without undermining constitutional and livelihood rights of local communities.