Why in News?

A study by the National Institute of Advanced Studies, commissioned by the Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser, has recommended that the Union Environment Ministry roll back its 2015 policy mandating all 537 coal-fired power plants to install Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) units.

Instead, the installation should be limited to plants using imported coal or coal with high sulphur content (>0.5%), ensuring a more cost-effective and targeted approach to reducing sulphur dioxide emissions.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)
• Key Highlights of the Study

Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD)

• Flue Gas Desulphurisation (FGD) is a process used to remove sulphur dioxide (SO₂) from the exhaust gases of fossil fuel power plants and industrial sources.
• SO₂ is a harmful air pollutant that causes acid rain and respiratory issues. FGD helps reduce its presence in the atmosphere.
• Working of FGD
  • Absorption: An absorbent like lime, limestone, or ammonia reacts with SO₂.
  • Scrubbing: The absorbent, often in slurry form, is sprayed into a scrubber tower to contact flue gases.
  • Chemical Reaction: SO₂ reacts with the absorbent to form compounds like calcium sulphite or calcium sulphate.
  • Byproducts: Some systems produce useful byproducts like gypsum, which is used in construction.
• Regulatory Mandate in India
  • The MoEF&CC has made FGD installation mandatory for all coal-fired thermal power plants to curb SO₂ emissions and comply with environmental norms.
• Timeline of compliance extensions
  • 2015: Emission Norms Introduced
    • MoEF&CC introduced strict SO₂ emission norms for coal-fired thermal power plants (TPPs).
    • Initial compliance deadline set for 2017.
  • 2017: First Extension Granted
    • Ministry of Power requested a 7-year extension.
    • Supreme Court allowed a 5-year extension till 2022.
    • Plants in Delhi-NCR were to comply by 2019.
  • 2021: Task Force and Categorization
    • April 1: MoEF&CC issued a notification to form a task force.
    • April 16: Task force created with officials from MoEF&CC, Power Ministry, CEA, and CPCB.
    • Plants categorized based on location:
      • Category A: Within 10 km of NCR/1M+ population cities — Deadline: Dec 31, 2022
      • Category B: Within 10 km of critically polluted/non-attainment cities — Dec 31, 2023
      • Category C: All other plants — Dec 31, 2024
  • 2022: Deadlines Revised
    • New compliance deadlines announced in September:
      • Category A: Dec 31, 2024
      • Category B: Dec 31, 2025
      • Category C: Dec 31, 2026
  • 2024: Final Extension Announced
    • December notification revised deadlines again for non-retiring plants:
      • Category A: Dec 31, 2027
      • Category B: Dec 31, 2028
      • Category C: Dec 31, 2029

Key Highlights of the Study

• FGD Mandate Should Be Rolled Back
  • The study recommended withdrawing the 2015 policy mandating FGD installation in all 537 coal-fired power plants.
• Apply FGD Only to High-Sulphur Coal Users
  • FGDs should be mandatory only for plants using imported or high-sulphur coal (>0.5%), not for those using domestic low-sulphur coal.
• Poor Compliance Despite Extended Deadlines
  • Although the original deadline for installing FGDs was 2018, only 8% of plants have complied, with deadlines now pushed to as late as 2029.
  • Of the 537 plants, 230 are in various stages of installing FGDs, while 260 have yet to place orders.
• High Costs Make FGD Economically Unviable
  • FGD installation costs ₹1.2 crore per MW. With coal capacity expected to reach 283,000 MW by 2032, the financial burden is massive.
• Indian Coal Emits Less SO₂
  • The study pointed out that 92% of Indian coal has low sulphur content (0.3%–0.5%).
  • Furthermore, existing pollution control norms—such as mandatory 220-metre stack heights—combined with Indian climatic conditions, are adequate to prevent harmful SO₂-related effects like acid rain.
    • A 2024 IIT Delhi study referenced in the report confirms that acid rain is not a major concern in India.
• FGDs Could Worsen Global Warming
• The report warns that widespread FGD installation could backfire environmentally.
• It would raise freshwater and power consumption in plants and add 69 million tonnes of CO₂ between 2025 and 2030, while only reducing SO₂ emissions by 17 million tonnes.
• Given that SO₂ helps mask global warming, indiscriminate removal of SO₂ emissions could actually intensify global warming, the study argues, referencing Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) findings.
• Focus Should Shift to Particulate Matter
  • Instead of targeting SO₂, the study recommends focusing on reducing particulate matter pollution, primarily caused by the high ash content in Indian coal.
  • Installing electrostatic precipitators—available from Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited—could reduce PM emissions by 99% at a cost of just ₹25 lakh per MW, making it a more cost-effective and impactful solution.

Why in News?

The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEB), in collaboration with IIT Bombay, has launched a pilot project to evaluate the feasibility of integrating Electric Vehicles (EVs) with the State's power grid using Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology.

The project aims to assess how EVs can support the grid during peak demand periods, leveraging EVs as a potential solution to balance the electricity load when solar energy is not accessible.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology
• V2G Technology Can Support India’s Power Sector
• Global Adoption of V2G Technology
• Current Status of V2G in India

Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Technology

• Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) refers to technologies that allow Electric Vehicle (EV) batteries to send power back to the grid.
• When not in use, EVs can act as decentralized battery storage systems, supporting the power grid via bi-directional chargers.
• How V2G Works
  • V2G involves two key processes:
    • Grid-to-Vehicle (G2V): Power flows from the grid to charge the EV.
    • Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): The EV discharges stored energy back into the grid when needed.
• Broader Applications
  • While V2G is the most prominent, EV batteries can also support:
    • Vehicle-to-Home (V2H) for powering household devices
    • Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) energy transfers between EVs

V2G Technology Can Support India’s Power Sector

• Demand-Side Management
  • Peak Load Reduction: EVs can discharge power during high-demand periods, reducing stress on power plants and lowering energy costs.
  • Load Balancing: Charging EVs during off-peak hours helps stabilize electricity demand throughout the day.
• Renewable Energy Integration
  • Storage for Volatile Renewables: V2G stores surplus solar and wind energy and releases it when needed, mitigating renewable intermittency.
  • Grid Balancing: Provides ancillary services like frequency regulation and voltage support for grid reliability.
• Grid Flexibility and Resilience
  • Backup Power Supply: V2G-enabled EVs can act as emergency power sources during outages.
  • Decentralized Storage: EVs offer local energy storage, reducing dependence on centralized plants.
• Economic Benefits
  • Cost Savings for EV Owners: Users can earn by selling excess energy back to the grid.
  • Improved Grid Efficiency: V2G boosts grid reliability and reduces operational costs for utilities.
• Additional Advantages
  • Smart Charging and Communication: Enables efficient energy flow through intelligent systems.
  • Environmental Impact: Supports the use of clean energy, helping reduce carbon emissions.

Global Adoption of V2G Technology

• Growth in Mature EV Markets
  • V2G technologies are rapidly advancing in countries with established EV ecosystems, such as the U.S. and Europe.
  • EVs are increasingly seen as cost-effective distributed energy storage solutions.
• Incentivised Participation
  • United Kingdom and The Netherlands: EV owners receive compensation for supplying excess power to the grid during peak demand periods.
  • California, USA: EV users are encouraged to contribute to ancillary services, such as grid stability and frequency regulation, with attractive financial incentives.
• Decentralised Energy Storage and Emergency Use
  • EVs serve as crucial decentralized storage units, offering emergency power during outages and supporting disaster resilience amid increasing climate-related disruptions.

Current Status of V2G in India

• V2G technology in India is still in its infancy. The primary focus has been on expanding EV charging infrastructure rather than enabling power flow back to the grid.
• Pilot Projects and Planning
  • Some DISCOMs have initiated pilot projects for smart charging and V2G integration.
  • The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has formed a committee to develop guidelines for reverse charging from EVs to the grid.
• Importance of Smart Charging
  • The CEA committee identified smart charging as essential to support EV adoption while minimizing stress on the distribution grid.
• Structural and Market Challenges
  • India's electricity market is not yet equipped for decentralized systems like V2G. Key issues include:
    • Variability in renewable energy supply
    • Mismatches between electricity generation and demand
• Need for Regulatory Support
  • To enable large-scale V2G adoption, India must implement regulatory reforms that support bi-directional energy flow and incentivize EV owners.

Why in the News?

The Tata Trusts recently published the India Justice Report 2025 according to which Indian jails face extreme overcrowding and are battling multiple health challenges.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• India Justice Report (Background, Objective)
• Prison System (Healthcare crisis, Overcrowding, Understaff, Disability, Suggestions, etc.)

About the India Justice Report

• The India Justice Report (IJR) is a collaborative effort by several civil society organizations and policy think tanks.
• It is a data-driven assessment that evaluates the justice delivery systems across India’s 36 States and UTs, covering five key sectors:
  • Police
  • Judiciary
  • Prisons
  • Legal Aid
  • Human Rights Commissions
• The report employs quantitative indicators to highlight both progress and persistent gaps in structural capabilities and public service delivery.

India’s Prison Healthcare Crisis Under Scrutiny

• The India Justice Report 2025 reveals alarming findings about the condition of Indian prisons, placing the spotlight on worsening overcrowding, the glaring lack of healthcare personnel, and the urgent need for mental health support across prison facilities.
• With a rising inmate population and stagnant infrastructure development, the report flags a systemic failure that requires immediate policy attention.

Worsening Inmate Overcrowding

• The inmate population in India rose sharply from 3.8 lakh in 2012 to 5.7 lakh in 2022, and is projected to reach 6.8 lakh by 2030.
• However, the available prison capacity stands at only 4.3 lakh, with a forecast of just 5.15 lakh by 2030, falling significantly short of demand.

• The national occupancy rate stands at 131%, a substantial jump from 112% in 2012.
• States like Maharashtra saw an occupancy spike from 99% to 161% over a decade.

• The report identifies overcrowding as a key contributor to communicable disease outbreaks, deteriorating living conditions, and increased strain on administrative and health infrastructure.

Acute Shortage of Medical Professionals

• The report highlights a 43% vacancy rate among prison medical officers, and the existing doctor-to-prisoner ratio stands at a staggering 1:775, far worse than the Model Prison Manual 2016 benchmark of 1:300.
• This deficit in medical staff hinders not only day-to-day healthcare but also responses to outbreaks, injuries, chronic illness management, and even forensic documentation.

A Mental Health Emergency Behind Bars

• Perhaps the most serious revelation of the report is the near-collapse of India’s prison mental healthcare system.
  • Only 25 psychologists are available for the entire prison population, equating to one psychologist for every 22,929 prisoners.
  • In 2022, India had 69 sanctioned posts for mental health professionals, but less than half were filled.
  • Not a single state or union territory meets the standard of 1 psychologist per 500 inmates.

• Mental illness among prisoners doubled from 4,470 in 2012 to 9,084 in 2022.

• Despite this surge, 25 States and Union Territories make no provision for a psychologist or psychiatrist within their correctional staff.
• This gap poses immense risks, including increased suicides, unchecked behavioural issues, and relapse among those with substance use disorders.

Invisibility of Disability in Prisons

• The report also notes the absence of national-level data regarding prisoners entering jails with a disability or those who acquire disabilities during incarceration.
• This undermines efforts to implement inclusive prison reforms or offer legal protection and special care to these vulnerable groups.

Recommendations and Way Forward

• The India Justice Report calls for:
  • Urgent recruitment of medical and mental health staff in jails.
  • Strategic investment in prison infrastructure expansion.
  • Regular publication of prison health and disability data.
  • Policy incentives for States to decongest prisons, especially through alternatives to incarceration like bail reforms and community sentencing.
• India’s prison system stands at a crossroads. As the country advances technologically and economically, its correctional system needs equal attention to ensure dignity, health, and safety for all inmates, aligning with international human rights standards.

Context:

• The Government of India decided to increase its investment in Vodafone Idea (Vi) to 49% by converting Rs 36,950 crore of delayed spectrum liabilities into equity.
• This marks a positive transition from uncertainty to stability — especially from the perspective of the banking community.

Background - Telecom Sector in Turmoil:

• The Indian telecom sector has faced a decade of disruptions, including -
  • Intense market competition.
  • Structural and regulatory challenges.
  • Financial distress among operators.
• For example, Vi was disproportionately affected due to legacy Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) dues post the 2019 Supreme Court judgment.

Implications of Government’s Intervention:

• Recognition of sectoral distortions:
  • Reflects a pragmatic approach to address past regulatory oversights.
  • Maintains regulatory sanctity while offering financial breathing
• Financial relief and liquidity support:
  • Cash flow relief of Rs 44,200 crore anticipated over FY26–FY28.
  • Additional Rs 18,000 crore raised via FPO in April 2024 bolsters operational capabilities.
  • Vi plans to raise Rs 25,000 crore in debt in FY26, aided by enhanced investor confidence.
• Continued private sector leadership:
  • Despite equity conversion, Vodafone Group and Aditya Birla Group retain operational control.
  • Counters any narrative of implicit nationalisation.
  • Ensures management accountability and policy credibility.

Systemic Impacts and Sectoral Stability:

• Avoiding insolvency - A systemic win:
  • Prevents collapse of a major telecom player.
  • Preserves:
    • Banking sector health.
    • Consumer access and competition.
    • Investor confidence.
• Vi’s deleveraging efforts:
  • Bank borrowings reduced from Rs 36,000 crore to Rs 2,300 crore.
  • Demonstrates fiscal discipline and a trust-based relationship with lenders.

Way Forward for Vodafone Idea:

• Key priorities:
  • Execute Rs 50,000–55,000 crore investment in network expansion over 3 years.
  • Focus on:
    • 4G coverage and 5G rollout.
    • ARPU (Average Revenue Per User) growth.
    • Reducing customer churn.
• Banking sector re-engagement:
  • Vi must present a credible business roadmap.
  • Lenders may explore:
    • Structured debt instruments.
    • Project-linked financing.
    • Risk-sharing mechanisms. 

Strategic and Policy-Level Implications:

• Maintaining a competitive market structure: A three-player market structure is seen as vital for -
  • Consumer welfare.
  • Price competitiveness.
  • Digital infrastructure investments.
• Telecom sector as a digital backbone:
  • Telecom is an enabler of economic productivity.
  • Supports adjacent sectors like:
    • Tower infrastructure.
    • Digital payments.
    • Fintech and e-governance.
• Link to digital economy: As per RBI’s Report on Currency and Finance 2023–24:
  • Digital economy accounts for ~10% of India’s GDP.
  • Projected to rise to 20% by 2026.
  • Telecom sector recovery is thus critical for inclusive digital growth.

Conclusion - A Strategic Reset, not a Bailout:

• The government’s intervention is a course correction, not a conclusion.
• For Vi, it is an opportunity to translate relief into results. For banks, it is a chance to rebuild partnerships based on credibility. For policymakers, it is an example of mature sectoral support without moral hazard.
• The initiative sets the stage for a more stable and resilient telecom ecosystem in India.

Context

• The emergence of artificial intelligence (AI) as a powerful and rapidly evolving technology has sparked global conversations about its potential risks, especially in the context of strategic affairs.
• Among these, the speculation around the development of artificial general intelligence (AGI), AI capable of surpassing human cognitive abilities and solving problems beyond its training, has intensified concerns about a looming AI arms race.
• A recent high-profile paper by Eric Schmidt, Dan Hendrycks, and Alexandr Wang attempts to bridge this gap by proposing mechanisms to manage AI’s potential threats.
• While their contribution is valuable for initiating a necessary conversation, some of their arguments, particularly those drawing analogies with nuclear deterrence, warrant critical scrutiny.

Flawed Analogies: AI vs. Nuclear Weapons

• One of the central proposals in Schmidt, Hendrycks, and Wang’s paper is the concept of Mutual Assured AI Malfunction (MAIM), inspired by the Cold War-era doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD).
• MAD posits that the use of nuclear weapons by one power would lead to devastating retaliation, ensuring mutual annihilation and thereby deterring initial aggression.
• MAIM, by contrast, is framed as a deterrent against the development or deployment of rogue super-intelligent AI by threatening reciprocal technological sabotage.
• However, this analogy is fundamentally flawed. Nuclear deterrence relies on the destructive certainty of physical retaliation, something that does not directly translate to the digital, decentralised, and often opaque nature of AI development.
• Unlike nuclear weapons, AI systems are not confined to centralised or easily identifiable physical infrastructure.
• AI projects are often distributed across networks of developers and institutions, making the idea of pre-emptively “destroying” them problematic and potentially escalatory.
• Moreover, relying on sabotage or pre-emptive strikes as a deterrent raises ethical and legal questions, and may justify aggressive state behaviour based on speculative threats.

The Challenge of Non-Proliferation and Surveillance

• The paper also proposes controlling the distribution of AI chips in the same way nuclear materials are regulated, such as enriched uranium.
• While the intent is to limit access to computing power necessary for training powerful AI models, this approach oversimplifies the nature of AI development.
• Unlike nuclear materials, once trained, AI models do not require continued physical inputs to function.
• Moreover, the hardware required for training is becoming increasingly commodified, making strict supply chain control difficult to implement effectively.
• The suggestion that states can pre-emptively dismantle rogue AI initiatives assumes near-perfect surveillance and intelligence capabilities, an assumption far removed from current reality.
• Even the most sophisticated intelligence networks struggle with the detection of clandestine technological projects.
• The risk of escalation due to misidentification or miscalculation cannot be ignored. This weakens the feasibility and safety of strategies like MAIM or pre-emptive sabotage.

Speculative Risks and Oversight Dynamics

• The authors of the paper also speculate on worst-case scenarios such as AI-powered bioweapons and cyberattacks becoming inevitable.
• While these are valid areas of concern, there is currently insufficient evidence to suggest that such uses are imminent or that AI meets the threshold of being considered a weapon of mass destruction.
• The narrative of inevitability can lead to premature or disproportionate policy responses, driven more by fear than grounded risk assessment.
• Furthermore, the assumption that AI development will be primarily state-driven overlooks the dominant role of the private sector in AI innovation.
• In today’s landscape, governments often rely on private companies for access to cutting-edge AI technologies.
• This dynamic complicates the state's ability to fully control or regulate AI in the same manner as nuclear programs, which are traditionally state-run and tightly secured.

The Way Forward

• The Need for Better Frameworks
  • Given these complexities, historical analogies to nuclear deterrence offer limited value for formulating AI policy.
  • Instead, more appropriate frameworks are required—ones that reflect AI’s unique characteristics as a dual-use, general-purpose technology.
  • One such alternative is the General-Purpose Technology (GPT) framework, which considers technologies that have broad applications across sectors and significantly impact a state's economic and strategic capabilities.
  • Although AI has the potential to evolve into a true GPT, current limitations, such as the constrained utility of large language models (LLMs), suggest that it has not yet achieved the level of diffusion or generality required to fully meet this definition.
• Expansion of Scholarship
  • What is urgently needed is an expansion of rigorous scholarship that examines AI within the context of strategic affairs.
  • Such work must avoid sensationalism and instead prioritise practical, well-grounded policy recommendations.
  • Only through sustained research, interdisciplinary collaboration, and informed debate can policymakers develop strategies that are both realistic and responsive to the evolving nature of AI technology.

Conclusion

• The strategic implications of AI, particularly the possibility of AGI, are too significant to be guided by flawed historical analogies or speculative thinking.
• While efforts to draw attention to AI's risks are important, proposals like MAIM and chip-based non-proliferation must be critically evaluated for feasibility, ethics, and long-term consequences.
• As AI continues to evolve, so too must the frameworks used to understand and regulate it.
• Future policymaking must be rooted in nuanced understanding, tailored approaches, and robust intellectual foundations that reflect the distinctive nature of AI rather than retrofitting outdated strategic doctrines.

Context

• The economic doctrine adopted by the U.S. President Donald Trump, popularly known as Trumponomics, marks a sharp departure from decades of American economic orthodoxy centred on free trade, deregulation, and global integration.
• Trump's assertion that ‘tariff is the most beautiful word in the dictionary’ encapsulates the underlying spirit of his economic strategy.
• Amid this development, it is crucial to understand the fundamental propositions of Trumponomics, its rationale, the mechanics of its implementation, and its broader implications for the United States and the global economic order.

The Foundations of Trumponomics

• Reindustrialising America
  • The loss of manufacturing jobs to globalisation, particularly to China and other low-cost economies, is viewed as a central failure of the post-Cold War economic order.
  • The offshoring of industries has led not only to job losses but also to the disintegration of communities, rising crime, substance abuse, and a general decline in social cohesion in former industrial heartlands.
  • While estimates vary, ranging from two to five million lost jobs in the early 2000s, the broader consensus is clear: manufacturing is integral to middle-class prosperity and national resilience.
• National Security Concerns
  • Beyond economics, Trumponomics argues that industrial self-sufficiency is a matter of national security.
  • The United States, it contends, cannot afford to be dependent on imports for critical materials such as steel, aluminium, and semiconductors, especially in times of geopolitical crisis.
  • Trump’s oft-quoted phrase, ‘If you don’t have steel, you don’t have a country,’ underscores the strategic dimension of economic policy.
• Critique of Free Trade
  • Trumponomics challenges the idea that free trade is inherently fair.
  • It charges that countries like China distort global markets by subsidising industries, exploiting cheap labour, often through coercive means, and engaging in intellectual property theft.
  • In such a context, adherence to conventional free market rules only disadvantages American businesses.
  • Moreover, persistent trade deficits, which have ranged between $500 billion to $1 trillion annually, are seen as weakening U.S. economic sovereignty and transferring wealth abroad.

The Purpose and Implications of Tariffs

• The Purpose of Tariffs
  • Reducing the Trade Deficit: By making imports more expensive, tariffs are intended to reduce reliance on foreign goods, thus narrowing the trade gap.
  • Reviving Domestic Industry: Protection from foreign competition allows U.S. manufacturers to rebuild capacity and invest in innovation and labour.
  • Correcting Currency Distortions: Since the U.S. dollar functions as the world’s reserve currency, it remains overvalued, preventing the trade deficit from correcting naturally through currency depreciation. Tariffs, in this context, act as a corrective mechanism.
• Implications of Tariffs
  • Economists warn that tariffs may raise consumer prices and reduce efficiency. However, Trumponomics rebuts this by emphasizing second-round effects.
  • A currency appreciation resulting from decreased imports could neutralize price hikes, leaving consumers unaffected while diminishing exporters’ earnings in their home currencies.
  • Moreover, the inflationary impact, estimated between 0.3 to 0.6 percentage points, is deemed manageable.

The Other Trump Cards: Strategic Effects and Long-Term Vision

• Trumponomics anticipates that rising input costs will pressure American firms to innovate and cut costs.
• In addition, the promise of a protected and profitable domestic market is expected to lure both American and foreign firms into relocating production back to the U.S. Early indications suggest this ‘reshoring’ trend may already be underway.
• Beyond tariffs, Trumponomics includes three complementary pillars:
  • Tax Cuts: These offset increased costs due to tariffs and provide businesses with capital to invest and expand.
  • Deregulation: Simplifying rules reduces compliance burdens, lowers costs, and enhances business competitiveness.
  • Energy Independence: Increased domestic oil production aims to reduce energy costs and mitigate inflationary pressures triggered by tariffs.
• Together, these policies present a coherent, if unconventional, economic model that prioritises strategic autonomy, job creation, and national pride over global integration and economic efficiency.

Trumponomics: Towards a New Economic Paradigm

• Trumponomics challenges the prevailing consensus that economic efficiency should dominate policymaking.
• Its approach mirrors that of developing nations, like India, which have historically balanced efficiency with social and strategic priorities.
• Critics argue that Trump's vision is insular and potentially destabilising.
• Yet, for Trump and his supporters, the goal of ‘Making America Great Again’ justifies temporary disruptions, both domestically and globally.
• Whether or not Trumponomics succeeds in the long term, it has already altered the terms of economic debate.
• It has spotlighted the trade-offs of globalisation, questioned the sustainability of free trade orthodoxy, and introduced a new language of economic nationalism that has since been echoed across political divides and borders.

Conclusion

• Trumponomics is more than a set of policy prescriptions; it is an economic philosophy rooted in nationalism, self-sufficiency, and strategic pragmatism.
• By deploying tariffs, reimagining trade relations, and reviving domestic industry, Trump seeks to rewrite the rules of the global economic order in America's favour.
• Whether this vision is sustainable or even desirable remains contentious.
• What is certain, however, is that the Trumpian economic doctrine has reignited critical conversations about fairness, resilience, and the true costs of globalisation, conversations that will shape economic policymaking for years to come.

Why in News?

In 2024–25, the US remained India’s largest trading partner for the fourth consecutive year, with bilateral trade reaching $131.84 billion. China retained its position as the second-largest partner, with trade growing to $127.7 billion.

However, India’s trade deficit with China widened significantly to $99.2 billion, a 17% increase from the previous year.

Historically, China was India’s top trading partner between 2013–14 and 2017–18, and again in 2020–21. The US has held the top spot since 2021–22.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Overall Trade Snapshot (FY25)
• India–US Trade Registers Strong Growth in FY25
• China Remains India’s Second-Largest Trading Partner

Overall Trade Snapshot (FY25)

• Goods exports remained flat at $437.42 billion (vs $437.07 billion in FY24).
• Imports rose by 7% to a record $915.19 billion.
• Services exports grew 12.45% to $383.51 billion, maintaining a healthy surplus with imports at $195.95 billion.
• Sector-Wise Performance
  • Coffee exports surged 40% to a record $1.8 billion, driven by global shortages and high prices.
  • Electronic goods exports jumped 32% to $38 billion, boosted by iPhone manufacturing in India.
  • Drugs, pharmaceuticals, fruits & vegetables, cereal preparations saw 5–10% growth.
  • Exports of gems & jewellery, handicrafts, chemicals declined by 2–10%.
  • Engineering goods exports grew 6.74% overall, but dipped 4% in March.
• Challenges Ahead for Engineering Exports
  • US tariffs on iron & steel and auto components may reduce annual engineering exports by $4–5 billion.
  • Increasing competition from Chinese exporters in global markets like Latin America, Africa, and the Middle East may erode profit margins for Indian firms.

India–US Trade Registers Strong Growth in FY25

• India’s exports to the US rose by 11.6%, reaching $86.51 billion in 2024–25 (up from $77.52 billion in FY24).
• Imports from the US increased by 7.44% to $45.33 billion (up from $42.2 billion).
• Resulting trade surplus for India stood at $41.18 billion, an increase from $35.32 billion in the previous year.
• Top Indian Exports to the US in 2024–25
  • Drug formulations & biologicals – $8.1 billion
  • Telecom instruments – $6.5 billion
  • Precious & semi-precious stones – $5.3 billion
  • Petroleum products – $4.1 billion
  • Gold & precious metal jewellery – $3.2 billion
  • Readymade garments (mostly cotton) – $2.8 billion
  • Iron & steel products – $2.7 billion
• Major US Exports to India in 2024–25
  • Crude oil – $4.5 billion
  • Petroleum products – $3.6 billion
  • Coal & coke – $3.4 billion
  • Cut & polished diamonds – $2.6 billion
  • Electric machinery – $1.4 billion
  • Aircraft, spacecraft & parts – $1.3 billion
  • Gold – $1.3 billion
• Future Outlook: Targeting $500 Billion by 2030
  • India and the US are negotiating a trade agreement aimed at boosting bilateral trade.
  • The shared goal: increase total trade to $500 billion by 2030, up from the current $191 billion.

China Remains India’s Second-Largest Trading Partner

• In 2024–25, India–China bilateral trade rose to $127.7 billion, up from $118.4 billion in 2023–24.
• China continues as India’s second-largest trading partner, after the US.
• Trade Deficit with China Widens Sharply
  • India’s exports to China fell by 14.5%, dropping to $14.25 billion (from $16.66 billion).
  • Imports from China surged by 11.52% to $113.45 billion (from $101.73 billion).
  • This caused India’s trade deficit with China to widen by 17%, reaching $99.2 billion, up from $85.07 billion in the previous year.
• Historical Trade Dynamics
  • China was India’s top trading partner from 2013–14 to 2017–18 and again in 2020–21.
  • Prior to China, the UAE held the top spot.
• Analysis
  • Experts noted that India’s growing trade deficit with China reflects structural dependency, not just trade imbalance.
  • They termed it a "competitiveness crisis", as exports to China have fallen below FY14 levels despite a weaker rupee.

Conclusion

India’s trade landscape is undergoing a steady transformation, marked by deepening economic ties with the US and persistent trade challenges with China.

While the US has emerged as India’s largest trading partner, offering significant export growth and a widening trade surplus, China continues to dominate as a key supplier, leading to a growing trade deficit.

As India seeks to bolster its global economic standing, strategic partnerships with nations like the US and UAE are becoming more crucial. 

Why in News?

Type 5 diabetes, a form of the disease affecting lean and undernourished young adults in low- and middle-income countries, has been officially recognised by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF).

Often misdiagnosed and overlooked in research, this type is caused by malnutrition-induced reduced insulin production and has only recently gained formal acknowledgment after decades of neglect.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About Type 5 Diabetes
• Markers of Type 5 Diabetes
• Treatment Approaches

About Type 5 Diabetes

• It is a distinct form of diabetes that primarily affects lean and malnourished teenagers and young adults in low- and middle-income countries.
• It is caused by malnutrition-induced abnormal functioning of pancreatic beta cells, leading to insufficient insulin production.
• Unlike Type 2 diabetes, where the issue is insulin resistance, Type 5 involves impaired insulin secretion due to poor nutritional history.
• Recognition and Endorsement
  • The term ‘Type 5 diabetes’ was introduced and endorsed by Prof Peter Schwarz, President of IDF, in January 2025.
  • It received official recognition recently at the 75th World Congress for Diabetes held in Bangkok.
• Historical Background
  • Although newly named, Type 5 diabetes is not a new disease. It was first reported in Jamaica in 1955 as "J-type diabetes."
  • In 1985, the World Health Organization (WHO) classified it as “malnutrition-related diabetes mellitus,” but the category was removed in 1999 due to a lack of conclusive evidence linking it to malnutrition.
• Global Prevalence
  • This condition has been observed in several countries including India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Korea—mostly across the Global South.
  • It currently affects around 25 million people worldwide.
• Recent Research and Renewed Focus
  • Recent studies have shed light on how childhood and early adulthood malnutrition affects pancreatic development and insulin function.
  • This new evidence has been key in securing the disease's formal recognition as a separate type of diabetes.

Markers of Type 5 Diabetes

• It is a unique form of diabetes, observed in Asian Indians, has no evidence of autoimmune or genetic causes.
• Key indicators include:
  • Very low Body Mass Index (BMI): Less than 18.5 kg/m²
  • Severely reduced insulin secretion: Much lower than in Type 2 diabetes, but slightly higher than in Type 1
  • Low body fat: Significantly less than seen in Type 2 diabetes cases
  • Poor nutritional intake: Especially low in proteins, fibre, and essential micronutrients
• Underlying Cause: Malnutrition from the Womb
  • The root of Type 5 diabetes lies in malnutrition, beginning as early as the fetal stage. Health experts explain that:
    • Undernourishment during pregnancy can impair fetal development and increase diabetes risk.
    • Historical factors like colonial hardships and food scarcity contributed to generational malnutrition.
    • If a child remains undernourished both before and after birth, without experiencing later weight gain, they are more prone to developing Type 5 diabetes, unlike those who develop Type 2 diabetes after postnatal overnutrition.

Treatment Approaches

• Since the disease has only recently been officially recognised, standard diagnostic and treatment guidelines are still under development.
• Preliminary suggestions include:
  • High-protein diet: To combat malnutrition and support insulin function
  • Balanced intake of carbs and fats: Tailored to BMI and physical activity for healthy weight gain
  • Medication: Anti-diabetic drugs or insulin may be prescribed based on individual glucose levels and response to therapy
• The Type 5 Diabetes Working Group aims to establish concrete protocols over the next two years, focusing on affected populations in low-resource settings.

Why in the News?

• The Supreme Court has questioned certain provisions of the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Court’s Observation (Key Aspects Challenged, Interim Relief, Petitioners’ Concerns, Govt’s Stand, etc.)

Supreme Court’s Intervention in Waqf Law:

• In a landmark development, the Supreme Court of India has taken a critical view of the recently enacted Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, as it heard over 100 petitions questioning its constitutional validity.
• The Chief Justice of India, Sanjiv Khanna, along with Justices P.V. Sanjay Kumar and K.V. Viswanathan, raised concerns over three specific provisions that have potential to disrupt the long-standing waqf structure in India.

Key Aspects Challenged in the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025

• The apex court flagged three significant elements in the amended legislation:
  • Waqf-by-user Denotification:
    • The 2025 Act eliminates the legal recognition of waqf-by-user properties, those in use for religious or charitable purposes for centuries but not formally registered.
    • Petitioners argued that this change could instantly erase the legal existence of nearly 4 lakh out of 8 lakh waqf properties.
  • Non-Muslims in Waqf Bodies:
    • The Act allows non-Muslims to serve as ex-officio members of the Central Waqf Council and State Waqf Boards.
    • The court expressed concerns about this move, questioning whether religious institutions can be governed by individuals from outside the faith.
  • Collector’s Determination of Property Status:
    • The amended law permits District Collectors to determine if a property is waqf or government land.
    • The court warned that allowing a government officer to act as a judge in such matters could violate due process and raise issues of conflict of interest.

Judicial Observations and Proposed Interim Relief

• SC emphasized that the court normally does not stay legislative enactments unless the situation is exceptional.
• However, he observed that this case qualifies as an exception due to the wide-ranging implications of the amendments.
• In an effort to balance equities, the Chief Justice proposed a three-point interim order:
  • Properties already judicially declared as waqf, including waqf-by-user, should not be denotified for the time being.
  • While the government officer may investigate the nature of land ownership, the status of such properties should not be changed until judicial review is complete.
  • Appointment of non-Muslims to waqf bodies may continue, provided a majority of members remain Muslims.
• No formal order was passed as the govt sought more time for the government to present its arguments. The matter has been posted for further hearing.

Petitioners’ Concerns

• Petitioners argued that the new provisions violate Article 26 of the Constitution, which guarantees the right of religious denominations to manage their own affairs.
  • On Waqf-by-user:
    • Petitioners noted that the concept has been recognized in the Ayodhya judgment, and its sudden removal would result in mass dispossession of properties traditionally maintained by the Muslim community.
  • On Religious Autonomy:
    • Petitioners highlighted that forcing a Muslim donor to “prove” religious practice before dedicating a waqf is a parliamentary overreach into religious autonomy.
  • On Historical Continuity:
    • Justice Khanna pointed out the historical fact that many mosques and waqf properties predate British rule and land registration systems.
    • Therefore, requiring registered deeds from centuries ago is unreasonable.

Government’s Stand

• Solicitor General Tushar Mehta defended the law, stating that:
  • Registration of all waqfs, including waqf-by-user, has been mandatory since the 1923 Act.
  • Non-Muslim inclusion in waqf bodies is limited to two ex-officio positions out of 22.
  • The Collector’s power is procedural and temporary until judicial confirmation.
• However, the bench remained unconvinced on several points, especially concerning the impact on religious rights and property access.

Context:

• The Supreme Court judgment delivered on April 8 in State of Tamil Nadu vs The Governor of Tamil Nadu and Another, marks a golden day in the history of India.
• It marks a watershed moment in reinforcing the federal structure of the Constitution and limiting gubernatorial overreach.
• It upholds the principle that India is a “Union of States”, and that elected governments must not be subverted by unelected authorities.

Background - The Rise of Constitutional Ambiguities and Central Overreach:

• Vision vs operation of the Constitution:
  • Constitution envisioned as a visionary document, not a mere operational manual.
  • Over time, required interpretation and evolution through over 100 amendments and landmark SC judgments.
• Centralization since 2014:
  • Alleged centralization of power by the Union government, often via obstructive gubernatorial appointments.
  • States like Kerala and Punjab have taken governors to court over interference in Assembly proceedings.

The Tamil Nadu Case - Delay, Politics, and Legal Resolution:

• The Controversy:
  • 10 Bills, some dating back to 2020, were withheld indefinitely by the Tamil Nadu Governor.
  • Bills pertained to state universities, critical sectors post-COVID.
• Role of Current CM:
  • Re-passed all 10 bills verbatim, irrespective of the originating government (current or previous).
  • Strategic and principled move, recognizing the larger battle for federal integrity.

Legal Innovations and Doctrinal Advancements:

• Article 142 - Judicial innovation:
  • SC used Article 142 to deem the bills assented to from the date they were re-passed.
  • Asserted judicial intervention to protect the legislative process from executive obstruction.
• Exposing malafide conduct:
  • Governor returned bills at the last moment, attempting procedural manipulation.
  • SC declared the Governor's conduct as “lacking in bonafides”.
• Landmark cases referenced:
  • State of Punjab vs Principal Secretary to the Governor of Punjab (2023) - Real power lies with elected representatives.
  • Kesavananda Bharati vs State of Kerala (1973) - Basic structure doctrine.
  • S.R. Bommai vs Union of India (1994) - Federalism and President’s rule.

Defining Limits - No Absolute or Pocket Veto:

• Clarity on Articles 200 (Assent to Bills) and 201 (President’s consideration of State Bills):
  • First-time establishment of clear time frames for gubernatorial and presidential actions on state bills.
  • Eliminates ambiguity, counters misuse of indefinite delays or silent rejection.
• No one above the law:
  • Neither President nor Governor has absolute veto or pocket veto.
  • Judicial review applicable to their actions—ensures accountability in a parliamentary democracy.

Conclusion:

Federalism as the Path Forward: The verdict is a victory for all states and citizens. It reinforces cooperative federalism, crucial in today's volatile global and economic climate, and calls for collegiality between States and Union for India’s progress.

Context

• The story of the displacement of the Gond tribals is one of historical irony, governmental neglect, and a struggle for identity and dignity.
• Sparked by counter-insurgency operations and sustained by bureaucratic apathy, the experience of these tribals sheds light on the complexities of internal displacement in India, particularly where indigenous communities and state security policies intersect.
• Therefore, it is important to examine the historical context, the implications of displacement, and the ongoing challenges faced by these communities, especially in the absence of robust legal and humanitarian support.

Historical Context: From Strategic Hamlet to Strategic Failure

• The displacement of around 50,000 Gond tribals in 2005 from Chhattisgarh to the then-undivided Andhra Pradesh (now Telangana) marked the continuation of a long-standing policy of forced relocations in India's counter-insurgency strategy.
• The policy, inspired by the U.S. "strategic hamleting" used in Vietnam during the 1960s, was aimed at isolating Maoist guerrillas from their support bases among the local tribal population.
• However, as history repeated itself, the strategy failed yet again.
• Much like similar efforts post-Independence in 1949 to counter communist revolutionaries in Telangana, the policy led to further alienation rather than integration.
• Tribals were relocated to roadside camps with minimal support, and many eventually returned to the forests or, ironically, joined security forces or Maoists themselves due to lack of alternatives.

Tribal Contributions and Tactical Shifts

• Despite the historical injustice of displacement, a paradox emerges in recent years: the same tribal communities that were forcibly uprooted have become instrumental in the state’s military successes against Maoists.
• Unlike central paramilitary forces or non-tribal local police, these tribals possess critical knowledge of the local terrain and language, making them strategic assets in anti-Maoist operations.
• Some surrendered Maoists have also joined the forces, creating a new dynamic in the battle for control in the region.
• This transformation illustrates both the resilience of the tribal communities and the irony of state dependency on a population it had once marginalised.

The Consequences of Displacement

• Vulnerable to Exploitation
  • The consequences of displacement, however, extend far beyond military operations.
  • The Gutti Koya tribals, as they are known in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, have lived on illegally occupied forest land for nearly two decades, caught in a legal and administrative limbo.
  • With no national or international framework guiding the treatment of Internally Displaced People (IDPs) that India adheres to, these communities have been left vulnerable to exploitation, from state officials, local police, and even neighbouring tribals who view them as resource usurpers.
• Stateless due to Bureaucratic Apathy
  • Even though the Forest Rights Act (FRA) offers a legal recourse through Clause 3.1(m), which mandates the provision of alternative forest land for tribals displaced before December 13, 2005, its implementation remains dismal.
  • Displaced tribals in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have submitted applications under this clause, but the Chhattisgarh government has neither processed them nor escalated the issue to the central authorities.
  • This bureaucratic inertia contrasts sharply with the proactive measures taken in the 2019 Bru Rehabilitation Plan, under which displaced Bru tribals were provided options and state support.
• Denial of Identity and Humanitarian Concerns
  • One of the most pressing issues facing these displaced tribals is the denial of tribal identity by host states.
  • Despite generations having grown up in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, state governments continue to treat them as ‘migrants’ rather than tribals, excluding them from essential entitlements and welfare benefits.
  • This classification not only strips them of legal protection but also perpetuates a cycle of poverty and marginalisation.
  • Though state representatives claim to offer limited humanitarian support, their actions, such as Telangana’s takeover of tribal farmlands for afforestation or Andhra Pradesh’s destruction of makeshift homes, reveal a systematic effort to push the tribals back to Chhattisgarh.
  • Meanwhile, judicial interventions have occasionally provided temporary relief, but a lack of political will for a comprehensive rehabilitation strategy means that most displaced tribals continue to live in uncertainty.
  • The younger generation, in particular, seeks stability, opportunity, and recognition in the states where they have spent most of their lives.

Conclusion

• The saga of the displaced Gond tribals is a stark reminder of the human cost of state security strategies and bureaucratic indifference.
• Their story is not just about migration or insurgency but about the fundamental rights to land, identity, and dignity.
• With the 2026 deadline for ending the Maoist insurgency approaching, it is imperative for the central and state governments to address the rehabilitation and recognition of these communities with the seriousness they deserve.
• A fair and compassionate policy framework, rooted in legal guarantees and inter-state cooperation, is essential, not only to correct historical wrongs but to build a more just and inclusive society.

Context

• The announcement of reciprocal tariffs by U.S. President Donald Trump has introduced significant volatility into global trade discourse.
• While not entirely unexpected, these tariffs mark a shift from conventional trade policy towards a more assertive, country-specific framework.
• The implications for global partners, particularly emerging economies like India, warrant a nuanced analysis of both the intent and impact of these tariffs. 

Understanding the New Tariff Regime

• The tariff announcement comprises two key elements: the existing commodity-wise import tariffs and an added reciprocal country-wise tariff applicable uniformly across all goods from each country.
• The reciprocal tariff, while presently capped at 10% for a 90-day review period (with China as an exception), is calculated using a unique formula:
  • 
• This formula, devoid of tariff elasticity or demand elasticity parameters, emphasizes trade imbalance over economic rationale.
• For India, this calculation results in a reciprocal tariff rate of 26%, derived from its $41.8 billion in exports to the U.S. and $87.4 billion in imports from the U.S.
• The 26% rate is to be added across all applicable commodity-specific tariffs, with a minimum floor rate of 10% for non-listed countries.
• Importantly, certain commodities, such as pharmaceuticals, energy, and specific metals, are exempt, suggesting a selective protectionist approach rather than a comprehensive one.

India’s Export Vulnerabilities

• India’s economic structure reveals moderate exposure to U.S.-bound exports.
• Despite a longstanding trade relationship, India’s exports to the U.S. have been in decline and remain a relatively small component of GDP.
• This dampens the overall macroeconomic impact of the 26% reciprocal tariff. However, sector-specific vulnerabilities persist.
• Key exports likely to be affected include:
  • Electrical machinery
  • Machinery and mechanical appliances
  • Made-up textiles
  • Gems and jewellery (minimal due to inelastic demand)
  • Mineral fuels (mainly re-exports)
• Crucially, India’s export competitors, China, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Bangladesh—are also subjected to high reciprocal tariffs, somewhat levelling the playing field.
• Notably, South Korea, another competitor in electronics, faces a comparable 25% tariff.
• This shared burden among major exporters may mitigate relative losses for Indian producers.

How Can India Calibrate Its Response to US Tariff

• A Multi-Dimensional Approach
  • A retaliatory tariff war, as witnessed in the U.S.-China standoff (with China facing tariff rates up to 245%), would be counterproductive.
  • India’s imports from the U.S. largely consist of essential goods. Levying additional duties would only raise domestic prices without significantly hurting the U.S.
  • Instead, India can tactically reduce its reciprocal tariff rate by increasing imports from the U.S., especially in non-sensitive sectors such as petroleum.
  • For instance, raising U.S. oil imports by $25 billion would bring India’s reciprocal tariff rate down to 11.8%, close to the floor rate.
  • This shift in the oil import basket would not inflate the current account deficit but merely alter its composition, offering a win-win solution.
• Proactive Consultations
  • Simultaneously, India should initiate proactive consultations with U.S. trade officials to explore a broader trade framework that accommodates the strategic interests of both nations.
  • Meanwhile, India must remain vigilant against ‘dumping’ from countries adversely affected by the U.S. tariffs, particularly China.
• Sector-Specific Protection and Prioritisation
  • India must also analyse which sectors are most vulnerable to the increased tariffs and act to cushion the impact.
  • For example, electrical machinery, mechanical appliances, and made-up textiles are likely to suffer due to the added tariff burden.
  • These sectors may benefit from short-term support through export incentives, diversification of markets, or improvements in domestic competitiveness.
  • On the other hand, sectors like gems and jewellery or pharmaceuticals are either less affected or currently exempt from the additional tariff, and could be prioritized in India’s export strategy to the U.S. 

The Role of the WTO and the Need for Global Reform

• The unpredictability ushered in by Trump’s tariff regime underscores a deeper crisis in the global trading order.
• A fragmented tariff system governed by bilateral skirmishes threatens the stability of international commerce.
• The World Trade Organisation (WTO), as the custodian of multilateral trade, must take the lead in restoring equilibrium.
• A movement toward universally low and rational tariff structures is imperative for fostering global economic growth.
• While regional trade blocs may offer temporary relief, they are inherently suboptimal compared to a cohesive global trading system.
• The WTO must spearhead reforms that reinforce the principles of fairness, transparency, and cooperation.

Conclusion

• President Trump’s reciprocal tariffs reflect a growing trend of nationalistic trade policies, signalling a shift from multilateralism to transactionalism.
• For countries like India, which are integrated into global supply chains yet maintain moderate trade exposure to the U.S., the response must be pragmatic rather than confrontational.
• By intelligently recalibrating imports, engaging diplomatically, and aligning with global trade norms, India can turn this challenge into an opportunity for strategic repositioning in the global economy.
• In the long term, reinforcing multilateralism through WTO reform remains the best antidote to rising protectionism.

Why in News?

China has effectively halted global exports of key rare earth elements (REEs) and magnets, including yttrium and dysprosium, following its April 4 announcement in retaliation to U.S. tariffs.

While the move targets the U.S., the absence of a licensing regime has disrupted shipments to all countries, impacting industries reliant on REEs like defense, aviation, and electronics.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
• Global Supply Crunch Looms
• Limited Impact on India
• US Pushes for Deep-Sea Mining to Cut China Dependence

Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

• These are a group of 17 chemically similar elements, including 15 lanthanides plus scandium and yttrium.
• Despite their name, they are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust but are rarely found in concentrated, economically exploitable forms.
• Significance of REEs
  • Critical for Modern Technology
    • REEs are essential in the manufacturing of high-tech devices like smartphones, electric vehicles, wind turbines, LED lights, and flat-screen TVs.
  • Defense and Aerospace Use
    • They are used in precision-guided missiles, jet engines, radar systems, and other military equipment.
  • Green Energy Transition
    • Vital for clean energy technologies such as solar panels, batteries, and permanent magnets in wind turbines and electric vehicles.
  • Strategic Importance
    • Due to their wide applications and limited global suppliers (especially China’s dominance), REEs are considered strategically important for national security and economic stability.
• Challenges
  • Mining and refining are environmentally damaging.
  • Global supply is heavily concentrated, with China refining over 85% of REEs, creating vulnerability for other nations.

Global Supply Crunch Looms

• With China producing the majority of the world’s REEs, the current export halt is expected to spark a global supply crunch, particularly impacting the U.S., Japan, Vietnam, and Germany.
• While some Japanese firms are better prepared with over a year’s inventory, the disruption echoes China's 2010 export ban during a territorial dispute.
• China’s History of Weaponizing REEs
  • Experts note that China has repeatedly used REE exports as a geopolitical tool — first in 2010 against Japan, and more recently from 2023 to 2025, restricting exports of key strategic materials like gallium, germanium, graphite, and tungsten to the U.S.
• Self-Reliance Still a Distant Goal
  • Countries are working to reduce reliance on China by developing domestic REE capabilities. However, experts caution that it will be difficult due to China’s dominance in refining technologies critical for processing rare earths.

Limited Impact on India

• India is expected to face minimal disruption from China’s REE export curbs due to its relatively low domestic consumption, despite a gradual rise in demand.
• Import Trends and Sources
  • India imported 2,270 tonnes of rare earths in 2023–24, marking a 23% increase from 2019–20.
  • About 65% of these imports came from China and 10% from Hong Kong.
• Domestic Capacity Still Modest
  • India’s domestic REE production is limited, led by state-run IREL Ltd, which operates a facility with an annual capacity of over 10,000 tonnes—significantly lower than China’s 2 lakh tonnes refined in 2023.

US Pushes for Deep-Sea Mining to Cut China Dependence

• The Trump administration is drafting an executive order to stockpile rare earth metals from the Pacific seabed, aiming to reduce U.S. reliance on China for critical minerals, including battery materials.
• China Opposes Seabed Mining Plans
  • China’s foreign ministry has objected to U.S. deep-sea mining initiatives, urging adherence to the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea and oversight by the International Seabed Authority.
• India Explores Andaman Seabed for Rare Earths
  • In a parallel move, India launched an auction in November for seven seabed blocks in the Andaman Sea.
  • These blocks are rich in polymetallic nodules and crusts, which may contain valuable heavy rare earth elements.

Why in News?

Recently, the Registrar General of India (RGI), under the Union Home Ministry, issued a circular directing private and government hospitals to report births and deaths within 21 days.

The move came after it was found that many medical institutions were violating this legal requirement, prompting action by the Vital Statistics division.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Gaps in Registration
• Responsibility for Registration Under the Civil Registration System (CRS)
• Centralised Portal for Birth and Death Registration
• Concerns Raised by the RGI
• Vital Statistics Report Not Published Since 2020

Gaps in Registration

• RGI issued a circular on March 17 noting that around 10% of births and deaths in India are still not registered.
• While 90% registration has been achieved, the goal of 100% universal registration remains unmet.
• Progress Since 2011
  • According to the RGI, the registration level in 2011 was 82.4% for births and 66.4% for deaths, indicating significant progress over the years.
• Legal Provisions and Penalties
  • The Registration of Birth and Death (RBD) Act, 1969—amended in 2023—makes it mandatory to register all births and deaths.
  • Under Section 23(2), registrars who are negligent in performing their duties may face fines, which have been increased from ₹50 to up to ₹1,000.

Responsibility for Registration Under the Civil Registration System (CRS)

• Under the Civil Registration System (CRS), governed by the RGI, government hospitals act as registrars for births and deaths.
• Private hospitals are required to report such events to the designated registrar so that certificates can be issued to the families.
• Role of State Authorities and Departments
  • The RBD Act empowers the RGI to coordinate with Chief Registrars appointed by State governments.
  • Registration duties vary across States:
    • Health Departments manage registration in States/UTs like Assam, Chandigarh, Haryana, Lakshadweep, Meghalaya, Odisha, Punjab, Sikkim, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
    • Panchayat Departments handle it in Kerala.
    • Directorate of Economics and Statistics manages it in Bihar.
• Centralised Digital Registration System
  • Following the 2023 amendment to the RBD Act (effective from October 1, 2023), all births and deaths in India must be digitally registered through the Centre’s Civil Registration System portal.
  • Chief Registrars and Registrars are mandated to share this data with the Central database maintained by the RGI.
  • This ensures uniformity, transparency, and seamless integration across government services.

Centralised Portal for Birth and Death Registration

• Digital Birth Certificate as a Key Document
  • The digital birth certificate is now the sole official document to prove date of birth for various purposes, including:
    • School admissions
    • Government job applications
    • Marriage registration
    • Obtaining passports and Aadhaar
• Integration with National Databases
  • The data from the central portal will be used to update key records such as:
    • National and State Population Registers (NPR)
    • Ration cards
    • Property registrations
    • Electoral rolls
• Foundation for NPR and NRC
  • The centralized registration system feeds into the National Population Register (NPR), which has a database of 119 crore residents.
  • The NPR, updated in 2015, is seen as a precursor to the National Register of Citizens (NRC).
  • Each resident’s information is linked through a unique registration number, connecting documents like Aadhaar and birth certificates — starting from birth, thereby creating a unified digital identity trail.

Concerns Raised by the RGI

• Delayed Registration by Hospitals
  • The RGI observed that some hospitals delay the registration process, waiting for family members to approach them instead of registering birth or death events proactively.
• Non-Compliance by Private Hospitals
  • Several private hospitals have been found to completely avoid reporting such events to the designated registrar.
  • Instead, they direct families to handle the registration themselves, violating legal obligations.
• Lack of Citizen-Friendly Services
  • The RGI also flagged that some registrars fail to make the registration process user-friendly.
  • It emphasized the need for timely issuance of birth and death certificates, ideally within seven days of the event.

Vital Statistics Report Not Published Since 2020

• The Vital Statistics of India report, which provides key national-level data on infant mortality, stillbirths, and deaths, has not been published since 2020.
• Importance of the Report
  • Compiled from State-level data, the report is crucial for public health planning and assessing the impact of various welfare schemes.
  • It acts as a foundational document for health-related policy-making in India.
• Status of State-Level Reporting
  • While several States and UTs like Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Delhi, Chandigarh, Mizoram, Goa, and Arunachal Pradesh have released their reports till 2022, Kerala’s last available report is from 2021.
  • Mizoram is the only State to have released its report for 2023.
• Trends in Registered Births (2020 Report)
  • According to the last published report (2020):
    • Registered births dropped from 2.48 crore in 2019 to 2.42 crore in 2020, a decline of about 2.4%.
    • Most States saw a dip in registered births, except Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Jammu & Kashmir, and Ladakh.
    • Interestingly, the level of death registration increased from 76.4 lakh in 2019 to 81.2 lakh in 2020.

Why in the News?

Former Supreme Court Justice Madan B. Lokur warned that extraditions will be difficult until conditions are improved in Indian prisons.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• UK Court Verdict (Background, Verdict, Precedents, etc.)
• India Justice Report 2025 (Key Findings, Challenges, etc.)

Background

• India’s ambition to bring back economic fugitives like Mehul Choksi is facing growing scrutiny due to the deteriorating conditions in Indian prisons.
• At the release of the India Justice Report 2025, former Supreme Court Judge and current Chair of the UN Internal Justice Council, Justice Madan B. Lokur, expressed grave concern over the impact of poor prison infrastructure on India’s global legal reputation.
• Highlighting a recent UK court decision that denied an extradition to India, he underscored the urgent need for systemic reforms in the country’s criminal justice framework.

The UK Court Verdict and Its Implications

• Justice Lokur referenced the UK appellate court’s denial to extradite Sanjay Bhandari, a defence consultant wanted in India for tax evasion and money laundering.
• The rejection was based on India's inability to assure humane conditions in its jails, especially Tihar Jail in Delhi.
• The court also highlighted a lack of concrete assurances from the Indian government despite multiple requests.
• This ruling will have lasting consequences on over 100 pending extradition requests from Indian authorities worldwide.

Troubling Precedents from Indian Jails

• The UK judgement cited several incidents that question the safety and oversight of Indian prisons:
  • Christian Michel, accused in the AgustaWestland scam, declined bail preferring imprisonment over restrictive bail conditions, shedding light on how even accused individuals perceive the harsh prison environment.
  • Tillu Tajpuria, an inmate at Tihar, was publicly beaten to death in full view of CCTV and passive prison guards.
  • Jagtar Johal and Ankit Gujjar also met tragic ends in custody, adding to the list of custodial deaths that challenge India’s human rights commitments.

India Justice Report 2025: Key Findings

• Released alongside Justice Lokur’s remarks, the India Justice Report 2025 offers data-driven insights into the systemic issues plaguing India’s judiciary, police, prisons, and legal aid sectors.
• Police Force

• There is just one civil police officer for every 831 citizens.
• 17% of police stations lack CCTV surveillance.
• 30% of police stations do not have a women's help desk.
• Reserved quotas for women in police are unmet in all States/UTs.

• Prisons

• Uttar Pradesh houses the most overcrowded prisons.
• Delhi’s jails comprise 91% under-trials, highlighting delayed justice.
• Gujarat reported the highest vacancies in High Court judges and staff.

• Judiciary and Legal Aid

• Bihar’s lower courts have 71% of cases pending for over three years.
• The per capita spending: ₹182 on judiciary, ₹57 on prisons, and a mere ₹6 on legal aid.
• No State in India allocates more than 1% of its total budget to the judiciary.

Challenges to India’s Extradition Strategy

• India’s ability to bring back fugitives like Mehul Choksi is increasingly being challenged not just on legal grounds but on humanitarian concerns.
• The European and North American courts, adhering to strict human rights standards, are unlikely to entertain Indian requests unless substantial improvements are made in:

• Infrastructure (including access to healthcare and hygiene),
• Monitoring systems (CCTV reliability and oversight),
• Accountability of prison staff.

Conclusion

India’s global image as a democratic and rights-abiding nation hinges not only on the strength of its judiciary but also on the conditions in which its justice is delivered.

As Justice Lokur notes, unless prisons are reformed and humane conditions are guaranteed, India’s extradition goals and its standing in international law forums will continue to suffer.

Context:

• The Union Budget 2024-25 proposes revamping the 2015 Model BIT to attract more foreign investment.
• Experts suggest a dual-model BIT strategy tailored to India's varying relationships with capital-exporting and capital-importing countries.

The 2015 Model BIT - A Decade of Defensiveness:

• India’s 2015 Model BIT emphasized sovereignty and regulatory autonomy.
• Included clauses such as:
  • Mandatory exhaustion of local remedies (for at least 5 years) before invoking international arbitration.
  • Narrow definition of investment.
• Result: Failed to gain traction globally and deterred potential investors.

Dual BIT Models - “Horses for Courses” Approach:

• Proposal:
  • Defensive BIT for capital-importing relationships (e.g., with African nations).
  • Investor-friendly BIT for capital-exporting ties (e.g., with countries where Indian companies invest heavily).
• Objective: Maximize benefits by aligning treaty terms with economic roles.

Flaws in the Dual BIT Approach:

• Dynamic economic relations:
  • Countries’ capital relationships evolve—India was a capital importer in 1994 with the UK, but now is a capital exporter.
  • Challenge: Difficult to permanently categorize countries as capital importers/exporters.
• Legal inconsistency:
  • Different BIT models imply divergent stances on legal norms (e.g., investor-state dispute settlement [ISDS] mechanism).
  • Undermines India’s credibility in international negotiations and multilateral forums such as the UN Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), currently discussing ISDS reforms.

Most Favoured Nation (MFN) Clause - Misunderstood Origins and Role:

• Clarifying MFN history:
  • Experts claim: MFN is rooted in multilateral treaties.
  • Historical fact: MFN clauses existed in bilateral commercial treaties since the 17th century.
• Importance in BITs:
  • The MFN clause ensures non-discriminatory treatment among treaty partners.
  • Contrary to claims, MFN clauses enhance treaty fairness and uphold the principle of equality.

Towards a Balanced BIT Framework:

• One model, better design: The key lies not in multiple models, but in creating a single, balanced BIT that:
  • Ensures investment protection.
  • Retains sovereign regulatory space.
  • Projects a principled and predictable stance in international law.

Conclusion:

• India must craft a BIT model that adapts to changing global investment patterns while maintaining consistency and legal credibility.
• A strategic, balanced, and investor-conscious model is vital for securing both foreign investments and the interests of Indian investors abroad.

Context

• Achieving a net-zero economy is one of the most pressing challenges of the 21st century.
• As nations around the world transition toward sustainable energy systems, electrification of energy end-uses emerges as a foundational pillar in this shift.
• However, this transformation extends beyond simply replacing fossil fuels with renewable electricity.
• It requires a comprehensive reimagining of industrial processes, energy generation, and storage, placing nuclear power and hydrogen at the forefront of the strategy.

The Necessity of Electrification and Hydrogen Integration

• The bulk of current fossil fuel usage is for purposes beyond electricity generation, notably in providing heat and essential molecules in industrial processes.
• For instance, carbon from coal is a critical component in steel production, while hydrogen derived from natural gas is vital in manufacturing ammonia, a key input in fertiliser production.
• Transitioning to a net-zero economy mandates replacing these fossil-derived molecules with cleaner alternatives.
• In this context, hydrogen becomes indispensable, not just as an energy carrier but also as a feedstock substitute in industrial operations.
• In steel manufacturing, for example, hydrogen can substitute carbon, enabling a cleaner reduction of iron ore.
• Similarly, widespread electrification must be complemented by strategic deployment of hydrogen, especially where direct electrification is impractical or inefficient.

Rising Power Demand and the Role of Nuclear Energy

• Forecasts by energy researchers indicate a significant increase in power demand as India progresses toward a developed, net-zero economy.
• While solar, wind, and hydroelectric power are critical components of the energy mix, they alone cannot meet the growing electricity requirements.
• Nuclear energy, with its capability to provide stable and continuous power, becomes an essential complement.
• Recognising this, the Indian government has set an ambitious goal of achieving 100 GW of installed nuclear capacity by 2047.
• The Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) is actively working to realise this vision through the deployment of Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs).
• Several projects are already underway across Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Haryana, with a planned fleet of 26 PHWRs rated at 700 MW.
• Furthermore, NPCIL is promoting the development of 220 MW Bharat Small Reactors (BSRs) for captive industrial use, leveraging indigenous capabilities and manufacturing infrastructure.

Challenges in Balancing Low-Carbon Energy Sources

• The Challenge of Grid Stability in a Low-Carbon Future
  • As nations transition toward low-carbon energy systems, one of the most pressing operational challenges is balancing electricity supply and demand in real time.
  • In a fossil fuel-dominated system, this balancing act is relatively straightforward, conventional coal or gas-fired plants can be ramped up or down as needed to match demand.
  • However, in a system dominated by low-carbon sources like solar, wind, hydro, and nuclear, maintaining grid stability becomes far more complex.
• Intermittency and Operational Constraints of Renewables
  • Solar and wind energy, while environmentally sustainable, are inherently intermittent and variable.
  • Solar generation peaks during the day and drops to zero at night, while wind patterns are less predictable and can vary by region and season.
  • Hydroelectric power is more consistent but is constrained by geography and seasonality.
  • Nuclear energy, on the other hand, provides a stable and continuous source of power but is typically designed to operate best at a constant, "base load" output rather than being flexed to follow demand fluctuations.
• Limitations of Flexing Nuclear Power for Load Balancing
  • As the share of renewable energy increases and fossil generation is phased out, a new paradigm for grid balancing must emerge, one that does not rely on carbon-intensive methods.
  • While some experts suggest the possibility of flexing nuclear power plants to match grid demand, this approach faces significant limitations.
  • Technically, altering the output of nuclear reactors is challenging due to the complexity of their operation and the long-term planning required for fuel cycles.
  • Economically, it is also inefficient: nuclear plants are capital-intensive assets designed for constant operation to maximize their return on investment.
  • Operating them at partial load levels reduces their cost-effectiveness, especially since variable costs do not decrease proportionally with reduced output.

The Way Forward

• Hydrogen Electrolysis as a Grid Balancing Solution
  • Given these constraints, the need for innovative, non-fossil solutions to balance low-carbon electricity becomes paramount.
  • One such promising solution is the integration of hydrogen production through electrolysis.
  • Electrolysers can serve as dynamic and flexible loads on the grid, absorbing excess power when supply exceeds demand, such as during peak solar or wind generation hours.
  • This not only prevents the wastage of renewable electricity but also helps stabilise the grid without compromising the continuous operation of nuclear plants.
• Decoupling Supply and Demand Through Hydrogen Production
  • The use of grid-connected electrolysers introduces an elegant solution: instead of curtailing solar or wind energy or flexing nuclear reactors, surplus electricity can be redirected to produce hydrogen, a versatile energy carrier and industrial feedstock.
  • This approach effectively decouples electricity supply from immediate demand, creating a buffer that supports grid reliability and emissions reductions.

Conclusion

• The road to a net-zero economy is complex and multifaceted, requiring a coordinated transformation of energy generation, industrial practices, and policy frameworks.
• Electrification, coupled with the strategic use of hydrogen, holds the key to decarbonizing end-use sectors.
• Nuclear power, with its base-load stability, must be integrated into the energy mix to meet growing demand.
• Forward-looking policy changes, such as redefining hydrogen categories and promoting integrated energy solutions, can unlock synergies and accelerate the transition.

Context

• The Supreme Court of India’s recent judgment in The State of Tamil Nadu vs Governor of Tamil Nadu marks a watershed moment in the country’s constitutional jurisprudence.
• Not only did it assert judicial authority over the executive’s inaction, but it also sought to restore the sanctity of democratic legislative processes in the federal structure of India.
• By invoking Article 142 of the Constitution, the Court undertook the unprecedented step of fixing time limits for gubernatorial and presidential assent to State Bills.
• This move, while historic, has stirred significant debate regarding the separation of powers and the evolving scope of constitutional interpretation.

The Significance of the Judgment

• This landmark verdict centres around the interpretation of Articles 200 and 201 of the Indian Constitution, which define the roles of Governors and the President concerning State legislation.
• The Court emphasised that Governors are not autonomous veto-wielders but constitutional functionaries expected to uphold the legislative will of the people.
• By ruling that neither the Governor nor the President can indefinitely delay their response to Bills, the Court set in motion a profound recalibration of executive-legislative relations at the State level.
• The judgment explicitly refuted the notion that Governors possess the authority to obstruct the legislative process.
• It underscored that the power to return a Bill for reconsideration must be exercised within a reasonable timeframe, and once the legislature reiterates its decision, the Governor is constitutionally obligated to provide assent.
• Similarly, Article 201 obligates the President to either grant or withhold assent or seek further reconsideration, again within defined limits.
• The Court, therefore, sought to address the procedural ambiguity that had previously allowed for executive stalling.

Judicial Innovation, Constitutional Interpretation, Accountability, and the Need for Reasoned Orders

• Judicial Innovation and Constitutional Interpretation
  • A core feature of this judgment is its progressive interpretation of constitutional provisions.
  • Indian constitutional law has long favoured a dynamic and purposive reading of the Constitution, and this verdict continues in that tradition.
  • The Court rejected the idea of reading the Constitution in a rigid or mechanical fashion, opting instead for an organic approach that aligns with evolving democratic ideals.
  • The precedent cited from A.K. Gopalan (1950) to K.S. Puttaswamy (2017) illustrates the judiciary’s evolving understanding of rights and governance.
  • Similarly, this case required a panoramic view that moved beyond textualism to safeguard the democratic will of State legislatures.
  • Drawing upon recommendations from the Sarkaria Commission and foundational judgments such as Shamsher Singh vs State of Punjab (1974), the Court reaffirmed the principle that Governors must act on the advice of the elected State government, and cannot exercise personal discretion to stall laws.
• Accountability and the Need for Reasoned Orders
  • One of the most notable contributions of the judgment is the insistence on reasoned orders when withholding assent.
  • The Court categorically rejected the idea of ‘simpliciter withholding’ of Bills, calling instead for transparent and accountable decision-making by constitutional functionaries.
  • The ruling not only removes the perceived immunity of the Governor and the President in legislative processes but also reinforces the principle that all constitutional actors are subject to judicial review.
  • In doing so, the Court has affirmed that ‘complete justice’ under Article 142 includes the power to ensure that democracy is not subverted by procedural delay or executive indifference.
  • The concept of ‘deemed assent,’ though not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, was creatively constructed by the Court to fill the lacuna created by such inaction.

Critical Reflections and Suggestions

• Despite its merits, the judgment has not escaped criticism.
• The Governor of Kerala, among others, has accused the Court of overreach, arguing that the judiciary has intruded into the domain of the executive and Parliament.
• However, such criticisms appear misplaced when viewed through the lens of constitutional pragmatism and necessity.
• The Court did not legislate but rather interpreted existing provisions in light of democratic imperatives.
• Nevertheless, the judgment prompts a few constructive suggestion First, the sheer length of the verdict, 414 pages, raises concerns about accessibility and efficiency.
• In crucial constitutional matters, the Court could adopt the practice of issuing shorter, more focused judgments, as seen in the UK Supreme Court's Miller decision on Brexit, which spanned just 24 pages.
• Clarity and promptness are vital in moments of political and constitutional uncertainty.
• Second, the Court must enhance its internal procedural mechanisms to handle similar cases more efficiently.
• The post-verdict request by the State of Kerala for a similar ruling underscores the need for better case management.
• Grouping related matters before a single Bench would ensure consistency, reduce redundancy, and enhance judicial coherence.

Conclusion

• The Supreme Court’s verdict in the Tamil Nadu vs Governor case stands as a monumental affirmation of democratic values and judicial courage.
• It corrects long-standing structural imbalances in the Indian federal setup, asserting the principle that elected legislatures must not be held hostage by constitutional functionaries.
• By embracing purposive interpretation and asserting judicial oversight over executive inaction, the Court has paved the way for a more accountable and people-centred constitutional order.
• As India’s democratic framework continues to evolve, such bold and thoughtful adjudication will remain essential to maintaining the delicate balance between power and accountability.

Why in the News?

Telangana government issued a gazette notification that formally implemented Scheduled Caste sub-categorisation, popularly called reservation within reservation.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• SC Sub-Categorisation (Telangana’s Decision, Structure of Sub-Categorisation, Court’s Judgement, Political & Social Context, etc.)

Telangana’s Landmark Move on SC Sub-Categorisation

• Telangana has become the first Indian state to officially implement sub-categorisation of Scheduled Castes (SCs), a long-debated policy initiative.
• The move follows the landmark judgment of the Supreme Court that upheld the constitutionality of further classification within SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs) for targeted reservation benefits.
• The implementation comes through the Telangana Scheduled Castes (Rationalisation of Reservations) Act, 2025, which was notified in the state gazette on April 14, 2025, coinciding with the birth anniversary of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar.

Structure of Sub-Categorisation

• Under this new system, the state government has divided the SCs into three distinct groups:
• Group I:
  • Reservation Quota: 1%
  • Sub-Castes Included: 15
  • Justification: These communities are the most socio-economically and educationally backward among SCs.
  • Notable Detail: Although their population is just 0.5%, the government allocated 1% to increase their representation.
• Group II:
  • Reservation Quota: 9%
  • Sub-Castes Included: 18
  • Justification: These sub-castes have received only marginal benefits from the existing reservation structure.
• Group III:
  • Reservation Quota: 5%
  • Sub-Castes Included: 26
  • Justification: These groups have fared relatively better and enjoyed more benefits under the current system.
• The total reservation of 15% for SCs remains unchanged, but the internal distribution now aims to ensure equitable access to opportunities among all sub-groups.

Supreme Court's Landmark Ruling

• The legal foundation for this policy rests on a seven-judge Constitution Bench judgment delivered by the Supreme Court in August 2024.
• The verdict affirmed that states have the power to sub-classify SCs and STs for the purpose of more nuanced reservation.
• Key highlights of the judgment include:
  • Recognition that benefits of reservation were being disproportionately cornered by certain sub-castes within SCs.
  • Validation of the principle of "reservation within reservation" to uplift the most marginalised sub-groups.
  • Clear ruling that such sub-categorisation does not violate Article 14 (Right to Equality) or Article 341 of the Constitution.
• This judgment overturned previous conflicting views and gave states the green signal to make caste-wise assessments within broader SC/ST categories.

Political and Social Context in Telangana

• The sub-categorisation was a long-standing demand of the Madiga community, which argued that dominant SC sub-castes like the Malas had monopolised reservation benefits.
• According to the Telangana Government, this policy aims to “ensure equitable access to education and employment” and will be immediately applicable to new recruitment processes.
• The categorisation process was based on extensive data, including social, economic, political, and educational indicators.
• Recruitment and reservation for government jobs will now follow this new classification system.

Looking Ahead: 2026 Census and Further Reform

• The Telangana government has stated that it will revisit and possibly enhance reservations after the 2026 Census, depending on the revised demographic profile of SC communities.
• Meanwhile, about 33 of the 59 SC sub-castes continue in their earlier grouping, with only 26 sub-castes reshuffled based on recent assessments.

Context

• The implementation of the Women’s Reservation Bill, 2023, marked a transformative moment in India’s socio-political landscape.
• It signified a shift in gender equity from the peripheries to the core of political discourse.
• Yet, this mainstreaming of feminist concerns, while undeniably progressive, has also led to a paradox: the very centrality of gender issues in public dialogue has made critical engagement with feminism increasingly fraught.
• Feminist discourse today, while more visible and powerful than ever, can at times feel rigid, polarised, and disconnected from the emotional complexity of lived experience.

Feminism’s Two Terrains: Structural and Interpersonal

• The first is structural, the institutional and societal frameworks that have historically marginalized women.
• These include issues of political representation, economic opportunity, education, and safety.
• The second is the interpersonal, the realm of relationships, family dynamics, and everyday interactions.
• While the two inevitably intersect, the danger lies in overextending structural critiques into interpersonal spaces, potentially distorting the human richness of relationships.
• To suggest that every domestic expectation or traditional role is an expression of patriarchal oppression is to flatten the complexity of human interactions.
• For instance, in many Indian households, men silently sacrifice comfort and endure harsh work conditions to support their families.
• A husband may expect a home-cooked meal, but also hand over his entire income to his wife.
• These actions are steeped not merely in control, but also in care, duty, and emotional dependence.
• Such contradictions do not absolve patriarchy, but they complicate it, and understanding these layers is crucial to building a truly inclusive feminist framework.

Structural Change and Everyday Negotiations

• This complexity extends to how social change is affected.
• While systemic reform through protest, legislation, and policy is indispensable, change also emerges through subtle, daily negotiations: a father sending his daughter to college, a husband adjusting to a partner’s career, or a family rethinking traditional gender role.
• These micro-level shifts, especially in marginalised communities, are often facilitated by men who may not identify as feminists but act as quiet allies.
• Acknowledging their role does not weaken feminism, it strengthens it by recognising the multi-dimensional nature of progress.
• There are, of course, clear and egregious instances of gender-based violence and suppression, from honour killings to proxy political representation.
• These demand unequivocal institutional intervention and cultural transformation.
• To address such structural barriers, we must build the state’s capacity to deliver justice and protection effectively.
• However, the most sustainable feminist interventions are those that work at both the institutional and societal levels, and that are sensitive to context and diversity of experience.

A Major Challenge in Contemporary Feminist Discourse: The Dangers of Collapsing Contexts

• A major challenge in contemporary feminist discourse is the tendency to collapse varied experiences into a singular narrative.
• The struggles of an urban, financially independent woman navigating domestic expectations are profoundly different from the existential threats faced by rural women lacking basic safety.
• Yet, too often, feminist rhetoric treats these inequities as part of a homogenous whole.
• This not only risks misrepresenting reality but also alienates potential allies, particularly men, who may themselves be navigating vulnerability and hardship.
• Indeed, many men today feel embattled, a sentiment that, while sometimes exaggerated, is not always unfounded.
• A man who earns less and faces public humiliation may not immediately recognise his privilege over a woman who, though unpaid, is shielded from those same indignities.
• Such complexities must be acknowledged if feminism is to build solidarity rather than provoke defensiveness.

The Way Forward: Towards a Compassionate Feminism

• In today’s hyper-antagonistic social climate, a more compassionate feminism may be the need of the hour.
• This is not a retreat from principles, but a strategic and ethical recalibration.
• A feminism that recognises the emotional and economic pressures faced by men, particularly those on the margins, has the potential to invite empathy and support, rather than opposition.
• What we need now is a feminism that can hold contradiction without collapsing into complicity.
• One that distinguishes between systemic injustice and interpersonal dynamics, that respects cultural context while pushing for reform, and that views men not solely as oppressors, but also as partners in the struggle for equality.
• Such a feminism is better equipped to transform society because it begins not with blame, but with understanding. 

Conclusion

• In male-female relationships, where the personal is inevitably political, an adversarial stance may sometimes be necessary, but it should not be the default.
• A feminism rooted in solidarity, humility, and care may be more powerful in the long run.
• After all, the goal is not just to dismantle patriarchy, but to reimagine relationships, both personal and political, in ways that are equitable, respectful, and deeply human.

Context

• In March 2025, a surge of textbook revisions across India, coincided with a wave of public anger targeting Mughal monuments.
• Viral campaigns incited vandalism and called for the renaming or destruction of tombs, reflecting a disturbing trend: the reduction of centuries of complex history into a simplistic narrative of heroes and villains.
• While some argue that such moves correct historical inaccuracies or colonial biases, the selective rewriting of history risks deepening social divides rather than clarifying the past.

The Role of History: Discernment, Not Dogma

• History, as a discipline, demands nuance. It is not a static record of events but a dynamic interpretation of causes, contexts, and consequences.
• However, when manipulated through ideological lenses to restore perceived glories or correct alleged injustices, history ceases to guide societies toward wisdom and instead becomes a tool for sowing division.
• This phenomenon, where historical revisionism is driven by political motives, can fracture social cohesion and provoke violence, especially when used to reclaim a so-called ‘status quo ante.’

Revisionism vs. Reinterpretation

• A crucial distinction must be made between historical reinterpretation and revisionist history.
• Reinterpretation is an academic process, an evolving inquiry informed by new evidence or perspectives that refine our understanding.
• In contrast, revisionism, particularly when fuelled by political agendas, seeks to recast the past to justify contemporary ideologies.
• This distortion often underpins identity politics, territorial claims, and nationalist fervour, leading to cycles of resentment and retaliation.

Historical Precedents of Revisionism

• Crusade Wars
  • The danger of historical revisionism is not theoretical—it is well-documented across centuries.
  • The Crusades exemplify how religious narratives were used to justify bloodshed under the pretence of reclaiming holy lands.
  • The First Crusade (1096–1099), launched to recapture Jerusalem, ignited centuries of conflict between Christian and Muslim powers, leaving a legacy of mistrust rather than reconciliation.
• European Wars of Religion
  • Similarly, the European Wars of Religion during the 16th and 17th centuries, including the catastrophic Thirty Years’ War, reveal the consequences of reviving religious grievances.
  • Fuelled by the Protestant Reformation and a desire to restore Catholic dominance, these conflicts led to immense human and economic devastation.
  • Instead of fostering understanding, historical grievances were weaponised, plunging Europe into chaos.

20^th Century Examples of Dangerous Revisionism

• Nazi Germany
  • In the 20th century, Nazi Germany offers the most extreme and chilling example.
  • Adolf Hitler’s ideological narrative of a betrayed and humiliated Germany, bolstered by myths of Aryan superiority and a manipulated interpretation of the Treaty of Versailles, culminated in the Second World War and the Holocaust.
  • Here, history was not just re written, it was used as a license for conquest and genocide.
• The Partition of India
  • Even in more recent times, historical revisionism continues to wreak havoc.
  • The Partition of India in 1947 was marred by competing historical narratives between Hindu and Muslim communities.
  • Instead of a peaceful transition into two sovereign nations, the result was one of the most violent episodes of communal strife in history, driven by the desire to reclaim lost identities rather than shape a shared future.
• Israel-Palestine Conflict
  • In the contemporary era, the Israel-Palestine conflict stands as a tragic example of clashing historical narratives that remain irreconcilable.
  • Both sides claim historical rights to the same land, perpetuating a cycle of violence and displacement with little progress toward peace.
• Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine
  • Similarly, Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, justified by revisionist rhetoric about historical unity and territorial continuity, has caused immense suffering and regional destabilisation.
  • These events underscore the destructive consequences of using history as a justification for present-day aggression.

The Way Forward: History as a Guide, not a Grudge

• History must serve as a teacher, not as a template for revenge.
• Recognising historical injustices is crucial, but using them to justify modern-day retribution only perpetuates conflict.
• The yearning for a golden past often blinds societies to the opportunities of the present and the promise of the future.
• By learning from our shared past, through dialogue, empathy, and a commitment to truth, we can avoid the pitfalls of vengeance and chart a course toward a more inclusive and peaceful future.

Conclusion

• As philosopher George Santayana warned, ‘Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.’
• But just as perilous are those who remember only to relive it, driven not by humility, but by hubris.
• The greatest tribute we can pay to history is not to revise it to suit contemporary ideologies, but to reckon with it honestly.

Context:

• The Constitution, once a symbol of deliberation and balance, is now allegedly being reshaped not by Parliament or the Executive—but by the Judiciary, the very institution meant to uphold it.
• Therefore, re-examining the Constitution in light of B.R. Ambedkar's legacy—which embodies limited powers, checks and balances, and democratic accountability—is imperative on this Ambedkar Jayanti (April 14).

Judiciary vs. Federal Structure - A Critical Lens on a Recent Verdict:

• Background: Delay in gubernatorial assent to Bills in Tamil Nadu.
• Judicial action: In the State of Tamil Nadu vs Governor of Tamil Nadu case, the Supreme Court invoked Article 142 to:
  • Set time limits for governors to assent to Bills (affecting Article 200).
  • Assert that the President “ought” to seek the Court’s opinion under Article 143.
  • Create grounds for a mandamus against the President if advice is not followed.
• Implication: This dramatically reinterprets Articles 200, 201, 74, and 143, bypassing the Council of Ministers and placing the Judiciary at the centre of legislative decisions.

Key Constitutional Concerns:

• Erosion of separation of powers:
  • The Supreme Court has seemingly overstepped by re-legislating, not interpreting.
  • Bypasses Article 74, where the President acts on Cabinet advice.
  • The suggestion that courts can direct or compel the President dilutes executive authority.
• Violation of federal norms:
  • The ruling affects all states, yet no state was heard during the proceedings.
  • The Judiciary acting suo motu threatens federal consultation and cooperative federalism.
• Procedural lapses in judicial conduct:
  • Article 145(3) mandates a constitution bench (5 judges) for substantial constitutional questions; the verdict came from a two-judge bench.
  • Undermines constitutional procedure and may set a dangerous precedent.

Broader Implications for Democracy and Governance:

• Judicial supremacy vs constitutional morality:
  • The Judiciary has taken a moral high ground to justify expansion of power.
  • Raises questions: Who interprets morality? Can it override constitutional procedure?
• Potential legislative pushback: Parliament, under Article 145(1), can regulate SC procedures:
  • Create laws regarding bench formation, case listing, and judgment timelines.
  • May trigger institutional friction between Parliament and Judiciary. 

Recommendations and Way Forward:

• Need for larger bench review: Any state can seek a review of the verdict based on:
  • Lack of notice to other states.
  • Decision by less than five judges on a constitutional matter.
  • Judicial amendment of the Constitution—without Parliamentary approval under Article 368.
• Call for judicial restraint:
  • Upholding constitutional order requires judicial discipline, not judicial activism.
  • A living Constitution must not be a shapeshifting Constitution.

Conclusion - A Disservice to Ambedkar’s Legacy:

• Ambedkar cautioned against the “grammar of anarchy”.
• Current developments risk replacing it with the grammar of judicial supremacy.
• On Ambedkar Jayanti, the judiciary must introspect: Are they upholding the Constitution, or rewriting it?

Why in news?

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is introducing a framework for gold loans amid a sharp rise in gold loan outstanding and non-performing assets (NPAs).

The surge in gold prices has led to increased gold loan disbursals, with NPAs rising by 28.58% and loan outstanding by 27.26% over the past year. The new framework aims to regulate the gold loan segment and mitigate potential risks.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Surge in Gold Loan NPAs
• RBI Flags Irregular Practices in Gold Loans
• Draft Guidelines Released
• The Attractiveness of Gold Loans

Surge in Gold Loan NPAs

• Gold loan NPAs rose sharply by over ₹1,500 crore to ₹6,824 crore as of December 2024, compared to ₹5,307 crore a year earlier.
• Break-up of NPAs
  • Commercial banks reported gold loan NPAs of ₹2,040 crore, up from ₹1,404 crore in December 2023.
  • NBFCs reported NPAs of ₹4,784 crore, compared to ₹3,904 crore last year.
• Gold Loan Outstanding Growth
  • Total gold loan outstanding of banks and NBFCs stood at ₹11,11,398 crore in December 2024, rising from ₹8,73,701 crore a year ago.
• Banks' Share
  • Commercial banks held the majority share with ₹9,23,636 crore in gold loan outstanding.

RBI Flags Irregular Practices in Gold Loans

• A review by the RBI revealed several deficiencies in gold loan practices, including:
  • Use of third parties for sourcing and appraisal without proper oversight
  • Valuation of gold in the absence of the customer
  • Inadequate due diligence and end-use monitoring
  • Lack of transparency in gold auctions after defaults
  • Weak monitoring of Loan-to-Value (LTV) ratio
  • Incorrect application of risk weights
• RBI Directives to Lenders
  • The RBI instructed banks and NBFCs to review their gold loan policies and processes, identify gaps, and take corrective measures within a set timeframe.
  • It also emphasized strict monitoring of the gold loan portfolio and greater control over outsourced activities and third-party service providers.
• Curbing Evergreening of Loans
  • Previously, borrowers could repledge jewellery by just paying interest, enabling indefinite loan extensions.
  • Post RBI intervention in September 2023, repledging now requires full repayment of principal and interest, making the process costlier and limiting loan evergreening.

Draft Guidelines Released

• On April 9, the RBI issued draft comprehensive guidelines for gold loans.
• Prohibited Collateral
  • Lenders are barred from granting advances against:
    • Primary gold/silver
    • Financial assets backed by primary gold/silver (e.g., ETFs, mutual fund units)
• Loan-to-Value (LTV) Cap
• For consumption gold loans, the LTV ratio must not exceed 75% of the gold’s value.
• Restrictions on Collateral Use
  • Gold used as collateral for income-generating loans cannot be used simultaneously for consumption loans.
• Ownership Verification
  • Lenders must verify and maintain records of the ownership of gold collateral. Loans should not be extended where ownership is doubtful.
• Tenor Cap for Bullet Repayment Loans
  • Consumption loans requiring bullet repayment (principal and interest due at maturity) are to be limited to a maximum tenor of 12 months.
• Operational Norms for Lenders
  • Lenders must:
    • Integrate gold loan policies with credit and risk frameworks
    • Set borrower- and sector-specific exposure limits
    • Ensure loans are linked to repayment capacity via due diligence
    • Monitor end-use of funds and maintain detailed records

The Attractiveness of Gold Loans

• Ease and Accessibility
  • Gold loans are attractive due to easy availability, minimal documentation, and quick processing.
  • PSU banks and major financial institutions offer instant loans with flexible repayment options.
• Higher Loan Value
  • The sharp rise in gold prices has enabled borrowers to secure higher loan amounts against their gold holdings.
• Cultural Significance and Emergency Use
  • Gold, often passed down through generations, is readily pledged during financial emergencies like medical or educational expenses.
• Economic Uncertainty and Stability of Gold
  • During economic slowdowns or uncertainty, gold is viewed as a stable asset, encouraging individuals to opt for gold loans.
• Digital Expansion
  • The rise of digital platforms and fintech solutions has made gold loans more accessible, even in remote areas, boosting their popularity.

Why in News?

Mehul Choksi, a key accused in the ₹13,500 crore Punjab National Bank fraud case, was arrested in Belgium.

India has requested his extradition for trial. Choksi had moved to Belgium last year for cancer treatment after living in Antigua and Barbuda as a citizen since 2018.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Next in Mehul Choksi’s Case
• Hurdles India May Face in Extraditing Mehul Choksi
• Allegations Against Mehul Choksi

Next in Mehul Choksi’s Case

• Extradition Treaty with Belgium
  • India and Belgium have an extradition treaty dating back to 1901, which permits extradition based on dual criminality—the crime must be punishable in both countries.
  • The treaty excludes extradition for political offences or if the accused claims political persecution.
• Legal Timeframe
  • Belgium must receive evidence of Choksi’s culpability from India within two months, or he will be released.
• Agencies Involved
  • Choksi was arrested following requests by the CBI and ED. These agencies will now prepare a detailed legal case aligned with Belgian laws.
• Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (2020)
  • India and Belgium signed this treaty to facilitate better cooperation in legal matters, including extraditions.
• Challenges Ahead
  • Despite the arrest, Choksi’s return to India may take a long time. European extradition processes are typically slow and complex.
• Past Precedents
  • India’s extradition efforts in Europe—like those involving Nirav Modi and Vijay Mallya in the UK—have faced prolonged delays, indicating that Choksi’s extradition may also be drawn out.

Hurdles India May Face in Extraditing Mehul Choksi

• 2021 Dominica Kidnapping Allegation
  • Choksi’s lawyers are expected to highlight the controversial 2021 incident where he was allegedly abducted from Antigua and taken to Dominica.
    • Photos showed him bruised and injured.
  • Indian officials had arrived in Dominica to bring him back, but the attempt failed amid allegations of abduction and coercion.
• Allegations of Forced Consent
  • Choksi’s legal team claims he was forced to sign a document consenting to return to India, which was meant to bypass legal protections he enjoyed as a citizen of Antigua.
  • His London-based lawyer argued this undermined his legal rights.
• Interpol Red Corner Notice Withdrawal
  • In 2023, Interpol withdrew its Red Corner Notice against Choksi, citing concerns over the alleged abduction and the risk of an unfair trial in India.
• Human Rights and Health Concerns
  • Choksi’s defence is likely to argue that poor prison conditions in India, possible human rights violations, and his deteriorating health make extradition unsafe and unjust.
• Complications Due to Antiguan Citizenship
  • Choksi’s status as a citizen of Antigua could further complicate the process, even though he is currently in Belgium.
  • His lawyers may argue that Belgium must consider his citizenship status in Antigua before approving extradition to a third country.

Allegations Against Mehul Choksi

• Expansion Through Gitanjali Group
  • Choksi, hailing from a family of diamantaires, expanded his business under the Gitanjali Group, opening luxury jewellery stores in India and abroad.
  • He, along with his nephew Nirav Modi, spent heavily on marketing, hiring international celebrities like Kate Winslet and Rosie Huntington-Whiteley.
• Fraudulent Use of Bank Credit
  • Between 2014 and 2017, Choksi and Modi allegedly colluded with officials at PNB’s Brady House branch in Mumbai to obtain fraudulent Letters of Undertaking (LoUs).
  • These were used to secure overseas credit, which funded their business operations and personal assets.
• LoU Misuse and Loan Defaults
  • LoUs were meant to be repaid within 90 days, but bank officials kept rolling them over with interest, maintaining liquidity for the duo while debt ballooned.
  • Eventually, PNB discovered the fraud and approached the CBI, by which time both had fled the country.
• Scale of the Scam
  • The total fraud amounted to over ₹13,500 crore, with Choksi alone accused of cheating the bank of more than ₹6,000 crore.
• ED Action and Fake Assets
  • The Enforcement Directorate attached Choksi’s assets, initially valued at over ₹5,000 crore.
  • However, lab tests showed many diamonds were fake.
  • The current estimated value of all his assets, including properties and investments, is around ₹2,500 crore.

Why in News?

The unexpected talks between Iran and the US in Muscat (Oman) mark a significant shift, mainly driven by changes on the Iranian side. While both sides entered with deep disagreements—especially over whether the talks are "direct" or "indirect"—they still chose to negotiate, which was surprising given the hostile backdrop, including US military actions against Iran-backed Houthis.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Iran’s Strategic Shift Amid Economic and Generational Pressures
• The Evolving Iran-Trump Equation
• What Lies Ahead: Prospects and Pitfalls in US-Iran Negotiations
• Conclusion

Iran’s Strategic Shift Amid Economic and Generational Pressures

• Iran is at a watershed moment, shaped by generational shifts, economic urgency, and evolving geopolitical dynamics.
• Generational Shift in Iranian Society
  • The average Iranian is 32 years old and has not experienced the defining events of older leaders — the 1979 revolution, the Iran-Iraq War, or the 1989 leadership succession.
  • Youth-led protests have been managed by the regime through a mix of coercion and limited reforms.
  • These newer generations are less ideologically bound and more focused on economic opportunity and social change.
• Economic Pressures and Sanctions Fatigue
  • Iran’s “resistance economy” was built in response to Trump’s “maximum pressure” sanctions campaign post-2018.
  • With inflation and unemployment still high, Iran needs over $100 billion in foreign investment to achieve meaningful growth.
  • President Masoud Pezeshkian and key figures like Abbas Araghchi support renewed economic engagement, including with US companies.
  • Even Supreme Leader Khamenei is reportedly not opposed to genuine American investment.
• Internal Political Dynamics
  • Reformists are using the country’s economic vulnerability to advocate for a new nuclear deal.
  • Conservative hardliners, while cautious, are not obstructing the process—indicating a rare political alignment in favor of negotiations.
• Changing Regional Environment
  • Iran’s regional network, the “Axis of Resistance,” has been weakened.
  • Gulf countries like Saudi Arabia, which once opposed the 2015 nuclear deal, are now in favor of diplomatic resolution and regional economic integration.
• International Influences
  • Even allies like Russia, previously supportive of Iran’s nuclear stance, are now encouraging a return to diplomacy—especially given Iran’s support for Russia in Ukraine.
  • There is growing international consensus, even among Iran’s traditional partners, that a negotiated nuclear deal is the preferred path forward.

The Evolving Iran-Trump Equation

• From distrust and hostility to pragmatic engagement rooted in economic need and political strategy.
• A Long History of Cautious Negotiation
  • Iran has engaged in nuclear talks since 2003, starting with the E3 (France, Germany, UK) and later including the US from 2013.
  • These negotiations often unfolded under the shadow of US military threats to enhance American leverage.
• Fallout from Trump’s 2018 Withdrawal
  • Trump’s exit from the 2015 nuclear deal and re-imposition of sanctions taught Iran two key lessons:
    • It needed stronger leverage—achieved through enriched uranium up to 60%.
    • The US was an unreliable negotiating partner, prompting Khamenei’s “no war, no talks” stance.
• Assassination of Qassem Soleimani
• The killing of Iran’s top general by the US in January 2020 deepened Iranian distrust and resentment toward Trump, hardening diplomatic resistance.
• Strategic Patience During Biden’s Tenure
  • Despite engaging in indirect talks with Biden’s team in Vienna (2021–22), Iran remained deliberately non-committal, not fully rejoining the 2015 deal.
  • This cautious approach was aimed at avoiding another abrupt US withdrawal and keeping options open.

What Lies Ahead: Prospects and Pitfalls in US-Iran Negotiations

• While core objectives align, achieving a deal will depend on diplomatic flexibility, regional dynamics, and timing.
• Converging Core Objectives
  • Both the US and Iran share short-term goals:
    • For Washington: Iranian nuclear disarmament.
    • For Tehran: Economic engagement and sanctions relief.
  • Iran maintains its nuclear ambitions are peaceful, citing Khamenei’s fatwa against nuclear weapons.
• Potential Stumbling Blocks
  • Trump may push for broader concessions as in 2017, including:
    • Restrictions on Iran’s ballistic missile program.
    • Ending Iranian support for proxy groups.
  • Israel strongly opposes any compromise and advocates for total Iranian nuclear dismantlement, possibly through military means.
• Trump’s Negotiation Style
  • Known for his maximalist approach, Trump may start with extreme demands to gain leverage before settling for partial concessions.
  • Experts have indicated there is room for compromise, suggesting US positions may not be rigid.
• Iran’s Strategic Leeway
  • Iran could ease ties with groups like the Houthis, who act more independently than other proxies.
• Role of Regional Players
  • Arab states’ support for Iran during Trump’s upcoming regional visit could weaken Israeli efforts to sabotage the talks.
  • US Vice President JD Vance and Iranian leaders have both signaled a mutual disinterest in war, unless provoked.
• Need to Isolate Talks from Regional Turmoil
  • Success hinges on the ability of both parties to separate negotiations from developments in:
    • Gaza, Syria, and Lebanon — regions where tensions could derail diplomatic progress.

Conclusion
A US-Iran deal is possible, but far from guaranteed. Both sides have strategic flexibility and shared incentives, yet regional volatility and Trump’s negotiation tactics introduce unpredictability. The key lies in maintaining focus and insulating talks from external disruptions.

Why in the News?

Recently, eight OPEC+ countries unveiled plans to advance their planned phase-out of voluntary oil output cuts by ramping up output by 411,000 barrels per day in May-equivalent to three monthly increments.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Saudi Arabia’s Strategy (Background, Supply Cut, OPEC+, Impact on Oil Prices, India’s Position, etc.)

Background

• Global oil markets are once again under the scanner as Saudi Arabia signals a shift in its production strategy.
• With plans to gradually unwind its voluntary output cuts, the kingdom is positioning itself to influence global prices in the backdrop of an increasingly volatile geopolitical and economic environment.
• These strategic moves are closely linked with OPEC+’s larger objectives and could have far-reaching consequences on countries heavily reliant on oil imports, particularly India.

Saudi Arabia’s Strategy: From Supply Cuts to Market Share Defense

• In recent years, Saudi Arabia had taken the lead in voluntarily cutting oil production to stabilize plummeting prices during the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath.
• However, with global demand rebounding and supply-side dynamics shifting, Riyadh is now looking to reverse some of those cuts.
• According to reports, Saudi Arabia is contemplating the gradual phasing out of its voluntary production cuts starting in Q3 2024.
• This move is seen as a calculated step to regain market share that it had ceded to non-OPEC producers like the United States and Russia.

OPEC+ Coordination and Global Impacts

• Saudi Arabia’s decisions do not exist in isolation.
• As a leading member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries and its allies (OPEC+), its production strategies are coordinated efforts aimed at avoiding a price crash.
• However, the strategy also carries the risk of being countered by competitive responses from other oil producers.
• There is growing speculation that if oil prices rise too sharply, it could trigger a new wave of supply from the US shale sector and other producers, thereby nullifying Saudi Arabia’s attempts to maintain price discipline.

Impact on Global Oil Prices

• Oil prices have been relatively stable in the first half of 2025, with Brent crude hovering around $85 per barrel. However, any aggressive shift by Saudi Arabia could result in either of two outcomes:
  • A price surge, if OPEC+ restricts supplies beyond market expectations.
  • A price slide, if Saudi Arabia's return to full production leads to oversupply amid weak global demand.
• The balance between these scenarios will depend heavily on geopolitical stability, demand trends in China and the US, and how other major producers react.

India’s Position

• India, as the world’s third-largest importer of crude oil, remains highly sensitive to such shifts.
• While rising prices strain India’s import bill and impact inflation, any price correction improves the macroeconomic outlook.
• According to a report, India has so far not protested the ongoing oil price spirals, suggesting that it might be capitalizing on diplomatic channels to ensure a steady supply at competitive rates.
• Furthermore, India's diversification efforts, such as increasing imports from Russia and investing in energy infrastructure, are partially insulating it from abrupt market shocks.

Strategic Takeaways for India

• Energy Diplomacy: India continues to maintain strong ties with major oil-producing nations including Saudi Arabia, ensuring leverage during tight supply scenarios.
• Diversification of Imports: India is importing more from non-traditional partners like Russia, Brazil, and West Africa to reduce dependency on OPEC nations.
• Strategic Reserves: Expansion of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR) has been prioritized to cushion against future price volatility.
• Transition Push: Rising oil prices have further incentivized the government to accelerate its transition toward electric mobility and renewable energy.

Conclusion

Saudi Arabia’s evolving oil policy signals a critical moment for global energy markets. While its intention to unwind production cuts may bring short-term relief from high prices, it could also destabilize the market if not coordinated effectively with OPEC+ and other producers.

For countries like India, such developments reaffirm the importance of strategic preparedness, ranging from energy diplomacy to diversification and sustainability investments.

Context:

• In an era of global labour shortages, India’s demographic dividend and human capital place it at the cusp of a strategic opportunity.
• While high-income nations face acute labour deficits, India has the potential to emerge as a leading source of global talent through a structured overseas employment strategy. 

Global Labour Crisis - A Window of Opportunity for India:

• Key global trends:
  • High-income countries are projected to face:
    • 40–50 million labour shortage by 2030.
    • 120–160 million by 2040.
  • Sectors affected: Healthcare, engineering, education, industrial workforce.
  • In Europe:
    • 73% vacancies in truck driving.
    • Over 50% in construction, nursing, electrical engineering, cleaning.
• India’s current position:
  • $125 billion in annual remittances (~3% of GDP).
  • Only 1.3% of the population are migrants (compared to Mexico – 8.6%, Philippines – 5.1%, Bangladesh – 4.3%).
  • Untapped potential in global workforce participation and remittances.

The Case for 'India for the World':

• Leveraging the demographic dividend:
  • Young population + high human capital = global supply potential.
  • Circular migration model can:
    • Curb illegal migration.
    • Improve global perception.
    • Encourage legal, skilled, and temporary movement.
• Developmental impact of remittances:
  • 10% increase in remittances = 3.5% poverty reduction (Study across 71 low-income countries).
  • Remittances have a higher developmental multiplier than goods exports.

Seven Strategic Steps to Build India as a Global Talent Hub:

• Institutional framework for overseas employment:
  • Strengthen the Ministry of External Affairs' migration unit.
  • State-level migration departments to:
    • Conduct recruiter verification.
    • Ensure worker welfare.
    • Support reintegration.
  • Embassies to set up migration support desks.
  • Model: Philippines' Department of Migrant Workers.
• Skilling and accreditation with global standards:
  • Align Indian qualifications with international benchmarks.
  • Incorporate foreign languages, global skills.
  • Mutual recognition agreements and joint certifications.
• Financial mechanisms for aspiring migrants:
  • Reduce pre-departure costs (currently ₹1–10 lakh).
  • Adopt models like Philippines' ESA-Pay, where employers bear costs.
• Strengthen government-to-government (G2G) agreements:
  • Remove bureaucratic visa hurdles.
  • Enhance recognition of Indian qualifications.
  • Promote socio-cultural integration.
  • Example: Philippines’ bilateral migration agreements with 65+ countries.
• Mobility industry body: Create a dedicated body to:
  • Regulate the recruitment sector.
  • Promote ethical hiring
  • Align private players with national strategy.
• Migrant worker welfare framework (based on ILO guidelines):
  • Ensure: Minimum wages, standard contracts, safe working/living conditions, access to healthcare and legal aid.
• Reintegration of returning migrants:
  • Facilitate economic and social reintegration.
  • Leverage returning migrants' skills and global exposure.
  • Promote local development using global best practices.

Conclusion - Strategic and Economic Gains:

• Building India into a global talent powerhouse will boost foreign exchange through remittances, enhance India’s global soft power, and promote inclusive development
• “Make in India” + “India for the World” can become the twin pillars of India’s growth and influence in the 21st century.

Context

• Imagine an India where the agricultural landscape is dominated by a few staple crops, primarily wheat, rice, and a smattering of vegetables, while thousands of traditional seed varieties fade into oblivion.
• This scenario is not a futuristic dystopia; it is today’s reality. Once the bedrock of India’s food security and cultural richness, traditional seed varieties are rapidly vanishing under the pressure of modern farming systems and market forces.
• Their decline signals not just a loss of biodiversity but also a missed opportunity to build a resilient and sustainable food system in the face of climate change.

The Decline of Traditional Seeds

• India has long been home to an incredibly diverse gene pool of traditional seeds.
• These varieties, adapted over centuries, carry traits such as drought resistance, flood tolerance, and natural pest resilience.
• They contribute significantly to soil regeneration and offer superior nutritional profiles compared to many modern hybrids.
• However, the rise of high-yielding hybrid varieties, promoted as the solution to food scarcity, has come at a steep cost.
• These modern crops demand chemical fertilisers, are water-intensive, and are often ill-equipped to handle the growing volatility of weather patterns.
• Ironically, the very seeds capable of adapting to these climate shocks are being pushed aside.

Structural Challenges in the Food System

• Market Dynamics and Consumer Behaviour
  • The disappearance of traditional seeds is not merely a botanical issue, it is deeply embedded in the structure of India’s food system.
  • The first challenge lies in market dynamics and consumer behaviour. Urban supermarkets, government food schemes, and domestic kitchens overwhelmingly favour a limited selection of commercial grains, particularly rice and wheat.
  • Consequently, farmers find little incentive to grow traditional crops that lack market visibility or consumer demand.
• Lack of Adequate Infrastructure
  • The infrastructure needed to support traditional seed conservation is sorely lacking.
  • Unlike commercial hybrid seeds that are mass-produced and sold for profit, traditional seeds depend on grassroots efforts: community seed banks, informal exchanges, and localized knowledge systems.
  • Unfortunately, these networks remain underfunded and under-recognised.
• Fragmented Policy Orientation
  • For decades, Indian agricultural policy has incentivised high-yield crops through subsidies, procurement programs, and research investments.
  • While this strategy may have served food production goals post-Green Revolution, it has inadvertently marginalised biodiverse farming practices.
  • Initiatives like the Odisha Millet Mission are steps in the right direction, but broader systemic reforms are needed to reverse decades of narrow focus. 

Seeds of Hope: Conservation and Revival

• Despite these challenges, the movement to conserve India’s traditional seed heritage is gaining momentum.
• Institutions like the M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) are leading by example.
• Their Tribal Agrobiodiversity Centre in Odisha has successfully convened stakeholders to chart pathways for sustainable seed systems.
• Such consultations highlight the importance of multi-pronged strategies, recognising farmers' rights, promoting participatory plant breeding, and integrating traditional knowledge with scientific research.
• Community seed banks must be supported with robust funding and strategic outreach, ensuring that farmers across regions have access to resilient seed stock.
• Moreover, it is vital to create a supportive policy ecosystem that extends financial and logistical support to farmers cultivating traditional crops.
• Expanding the Minimum Support Price (MSP) framework, diversifying government procurement programs, and incorporating traditional grains into public nutrition schemes like mid-day meals and ration shops can significantly boost their cultivation and consumption.

The Way Forward: Changing the Narrative, From Farms to Kitchens

• Ultimately, the revival of traditional seeds depends as much on consumer behaviour as it does on policy and infrastructure.
• Farmers will grow what people are willing to buy. Therefore, a shift in consumer preferences is essential.
• Branding initiatives and awareness campaigns must highlight the nutritional, environmental, and cultural advantages of traditional crops.
• When consumers begin to demand millets, indigenous pulses, and heirloom rice, market forces will naturally pivot to accommodate this change, creating a self-sustaining cycle of demand and supply.

Conclusion

• India is at a crossroads and escalating farming costs, climate uncertainties, eroding soil health, and poor dietary habits signal the unsustainability of the current model.
• However, this crisis also presents an opportunity. By reinvesting in traditional seed systems, India does not have to choose between productivity and sustainability.
• With coordinated national strategies, community-led conservation efforts, and a shift in public consciousness, the country can develop a food system that is productive, resilient, inclusive, and deeply rooted in its agricultural legacy.

Context

• Recently, a landmark judgment redefined the limits of gubernatorial authority within India's constitutional framework.
• The Supreme Court of India has delivered a resounding affirmation of democratic principles and federal balance.
• The ruling in State of Tamil Nadu vs The Governor of Tamil Nadu, by Justices J.B. Pardiwala and R. Mahadevan, underscores the limits of the Governor’s role and reasserts the primacy of the elected State government in a federal democracy.

Constitutional Context and Core Issue

• The central question before the Court was both simple and profound: What happens when a Governor, in defiance of constitutional duty, refuses to act on a Bill duly passed by the State Legislature?
• The dispute arose from the Governor of Tamil Nadu’s inaction and delays in granting assent to 12 Bills passed by the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly, some dating back to 2020.
• Among them were Bills aimed at curbing the Governor’s powers in the appointment of Vice-Chancellors to public universities, a contentious issue between the elected government and the Raj Bhavan.
• The Governor’s delay and subsequent unilateral referral of these Bills to the President, without acting on the Council of Ministers’ advice, triggered a constitutional standoff.
• The Supreme Court was called upon to adjudicate whether such conduct was permissible under the Constitution, and whether the Governor could withhold assent indefinitely.

The Limits of Gubernatorial Power, Judicial Review and Accountability

• The Limits of Gubernatorial Power: A Detailed Review of Art 200
  • India’s federal design, as delineated by Articles 245 and the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, establishes a division of powers between the Union and the States.
  • While the Governor is appointed by the President, his or her role is fundamentally ceremonial and constitutionally limited.
  • Except in narrowly defined instances, the Governor must act on the advice of the Council of Ministers.
  • The Union of India argued that Article 200 gives the Governor discretion to withhold assent to a Bill, effectively granting him an absolute veto.
  • However, the Court rejected this interpretation, citing its own precedent in State of Punjab vs Principal Secretary to the Governor of Punjab (2023).
  • The Court held that Article 200 only allows for three specific courses of action: (1) granting assent, (2) withholding assent and returning the Bill to the Assembly, or (3) reserving the Bill for the President. There is no constitutional basis for the Governor to simply reject a Bill without explanation or process.
  • The Court further examined the intent of the framers of the Constitution by referring to Constituent Assembly Debates.
  • It noted that the phrase ‘in his discretion’ was deliberately omitted from the final version of Article 200, thereby reinforcing that the Governor cannot act independently in deciding whether to refer a Bill to the President.
• Judicial Review and Accountability
  • A critical aspect of the Court’s reasoning lay in the principle of judicial review.
  • While Article 361 provides personal immunity to Governors, it does not place their actions beyond legal scrutiny.
  • Citing Rameshwar Prasad vs Union of India (2006), the Court reaffirmed that the Governor’s actions, especially when they obstruct legislative processes, are subject to judicial oversight.
  • Otherwise, Governors could potentially stall State governance indefinitely, rendering legislative mandates ineffective.
  • In this specific case, the Court found that the Governor had violated constitutional norms by referring the Bills to the President after withholding assent, without any recommendation from the Council of Ministers or valid constitutional rationale.
  • The acts were thus deemed unconstitutional.

Use of Article 142 and the Question of Judicial Overreach

• While the Court could have issued a writ of mandamus compelling the Governor to act, it recognised the practical and legal difficulties in enforcing such an order.
• Instead, invoking its extraordinary powers under Article 142 to do ‘complete justice,’ the Court declared that the 10 Bills in question would be deemed to have received assent on the date they were re-presented to the Governor.
• This unprecedented remedy may raise concerns of judicial overreach.
• However, the Court justified it as a logical and necessary response to constitutional deadlock, especially in light of the prolonged delay and disregard for previous rulings.

The Broader Significance

• Beyond the immediate implications for Tamil Nadu’s legislative agenda, the judgment reaffirms a vital democratic principle: that Governors, despite their Union appointments, are not autonomous actors.
• Their role is to uphold the constitutional scheme, not to frustrate the democratic will of elected State governments.
• As the Court aptly stated, the Governor is not meant to be a political antagonist but a ‘constitutional sentinel.’ 

Conclusion

• The Supreme Court’s judgment in State of Tamil Nadu vs The Governor of Tamil Nadu is a robust reaffirmation of constitutional morality and federalism.
• It draws clear boundaries around gubernatorial power and reiterates the foundational idea that India’s democracy rests on accountable governance and the supremacy of elected institutions.
• In doing so, it not only settles an immediate controversy but also provides enduring guidance for the functioning of India's federal machinery.

Why in News?

The European Space Agency (ESA) is set to launch its seventh Earth Explorer mission, Biomass, aboard the Vega C rocket from French Guiana. The satellite will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of around 666 km.

The mission aims to map the world's forests, providing crucial data on their condition and changes over time. This will enhance understanding of the role forests play in the global carbon cycle.

The Biomass mission is part of ESA's broader Earth Explorer programme, which studies various components of the Earth's system.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Biomass Mission
• How the Biomass Mission Will Monitor Forests
• The Earth Explorer Programme

Biomass Mission

• It aims to address the lack of large-scale data on forest above-ground biomass and forest height, which is critical for understanding forests' role in the carbon cycle and climate regulation.
• Importance of Forests
  • Forests absorb around 16 billion metric tonnes of CO₂
  • They store about 861 gigatonnes of carbon in branches, leaves, roots, and soils.
  • Accurate data on biomass is essential to assess their health and carbon storage capacity.
• Tracking Deforestation and Carbon Emissions
  • In 2023, the world lost 3.7 million hectares of tropical forests — about 10 soccer fields per minute.
  • This deforestation contributed to 6% of global CO₂ emissions.
  • The mission will help monitor how carbon levels are changing due to deforestation and human activity.
• Technological Approach
  • The mission will create 3D images of forests, from the canopy to the ground, using advanced radar imaging.
  • It will improve understanding of forest quality, diversity, and carbon storage.
• Additional Objectives
  • Monitor ice sheet movements in Antarctica.
  • Produce digital terrain models in areas covered by dense vegetation.

How the Biomass Mission Will Monitor Forests

• Use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
  • The Biomass satellite will employ SAR technology to map the Earth’s surface.
  • Unlike optical sensors, SAR can operate day and night and through clouds, making it ideal for consistent forest monitoring.
  • The SAR will operate in the P-band frequency range with a wavelength of 70 cm.
  • This long wavelength allows the radar to penetrate dense forest canopies, enabling scientists to measure biomass from the tree canopy to the forest floor.
  • This capability is unique to Biomass, as it is the first satellite globally to use P-band SAR.
• Estimating Forest Biomass and Carbon Storage
  • The radar will estimate above-ground biomass — the total mass of living vegetation in forests.
  • From this, researchers can calculate carbon content, as roughly half of forest biomass is carbon.
• Key Technological Feature
  • The satellite is equipped with a 12-meter antenna that will unfold once in orbit, enabling high-resolution radar imaging across wide forested regions.
• Importance of the Data
  • The mission will "weigh" forests from space, helping to determine how much carbon is stored and how this changes over time.
  • This will improve our understanding of the carbon balance between forests and the atmosphere — a critical factor in addressing climate change.

The Earth Explorer Programme

• The Earth Explorer programme by the European Space Agency (ESA) is designed to enhance understanding of the Earth system by launching satellites that study various components of the planet, including:
  • Earth’s interior
  • Cryosphere (frozen regions)
  • Hydrosphere (water bodies)
  • Atmosphere
  • Ionosphere (charged particles)
  • Land surface
• Key Missions Under the Programme
  • GOCE (2009–2013): The Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer was the first mission. It advanced research in ocean circulation and the physics of Earth’s interior.
  • EarthCARE (Launched May 2024): The Earth Cloud Aerosol and Radiation Explorer aims to improve our understanding of Earth’s radiative balance, which is vital for climate studies.
• Broader Impact
  • The Earth Explorer missions provide critical data to support scientific research on climate change, natural resources, and environmental monitoring across the globe.