Why in the News?

• The government has launched guidelines under the Rs. 10,000 crore PM E-Drive scheme, offering 100% subsidy for EV charging infrastructure to accelerate India’s transition to clean mobility.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• PM E-Drive Scheme (Introduction, Key Features, Impact on Ecosystem, Challenges, etc.)

Introduction

• India has set ambitious targets for transitioning towards sustainable transportation, with electric vehicles (EVs) positioned at the centre of its clean mobility vision.
• To bridge the critical infrastructure gap, the government has rolled out guidelines under the Rs. 10,000 crore PM E-Drive scheme, offering up to 100% subsidy for setting up EV charging stations and battery swapping stations.
• The move aims to accelerate EV adoption by addressing one of the sector’s biggest challenges, inadequate charging infrastructure.

India’s Push for EV Adoption

• The EV sector in India has gained momentum over the past decade, supported by policies such as the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme and state-level incentives.
• However, the lack of sufficient charging points continues to deter buyers. India currently has fewer than 20,000 public charging stations, far behind global EV leaders like China and the U.S.
• The PM E-Drive scheme seeks to address this bottleneck by prioritising subsidies for high-density urban areas, smart cities, and critical transport corridors.
• By linking subsidies to demand aggregation, the scheme ensures a coordinated approach between ministries, state governments, and public sector enterprises.

Key Features of the PM E-Drive Subsidy Scheme

• The new guidelines allocate Rs. 2,000 crore out of the Rs. 10,000 crore scheme exclusively for charging infrastructure. Some of the notable features include:

• 100% Subsidy Coverage: Eligible entities will receive full financial support for upstream infrastructure like transformers, cables, circuit breakers, and civil works. In some cases, even the cost of EV supply equipment (EVSE), including charging guns, will be subsidised.
• Priority Areas: Focus on cities with populations above one million, notified smart cities, satellite towns near metros, and cities under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
• Highways Integration: Selected inter-city and inter-state highways will be made EV-ready through coordinated planning with the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways.
• Eligible Entities: Central ministries, State governments, PSUs, and CPSEs can submit proposals. Companies like IOCL, BPCL, HPCL, NHAI, AAI, and metro rail corporations are also eligible.
• Operational Flexibility: Entities may directly operate charging stations or appoint Charge Point Operators (CPOs).

Expected Impact on EV Ecosystem

• The subsidy scheme is designed to create a network of charging stations that matches the pace of EV adoption in India. The immediate benefits include:

• Boost to EV Sales: Assured availability of charging infrastructure is expected to encourage more consumers to switch from internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs.
• Public Sector Leadership: Involving large PSUs such as IOCL and NHAI ensures that the scheme benefits from established networks and infrastructure expertise.
• Pollution Reduction: By prioritising NCAP cities and capital cities, the scheme aligns EV infrastructure growth with India’s clean air goals.
• Economic Opportunities: The expansion of charging networks will create business opportunities for Charge Point Operators, equipment manufacturers, and service providers.

Challenges Ahead

• While the subsidy plan is a breakthrough, its success will depend on implementation. Some key challenges include:

• Land Acquisition: Identifying and securing suitable sites for charging stations in densely populated urban areas.
• Grid Readiness: Strengthening India’s power distribution systems to handle increased EV charging load without causing disruptions.
• Private Sector Participation: Encouraging private players to complement PSU-led efforts for a balanced rollout.
• Consumer Awareness: Educating users about charging locations, pricing models, and safety standards.

Why in News?

• The National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) has released its Crime in India 2023 report (after a two-year gap), highlighting a significant increase in cybercrime cases.
• The data reflects growing vulnerabilities in India’s digital ecosystem, with fraud, extortion, and sexual exploitation emerging as dominant motives behind such crimes.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Key Findings of the Report
• Cybercrime Trends
• State-Wise Data on Cribercrime
• Economic Offences (Broader Category)
• Analysis and Implications
• Conclusion

Key Findings of the Report:

• Overall crime statistics:
  • The data reflects a 7.2% overall increase in recorded crimes, reaching 6.24 million cases (crimes every five seconds on average in 2023).
  • Traditional violent crimes such as murder (↓2.8%) and rape (↓5.9%) have declined.
  • But cybercrime, economic offences, and miscellaneous crimes like obstruction on public way (Sec.283 IPC - ↑62%) and Motor Vehicle Act violations (↑103%) have surged.
• Offences against vulnerable sections:
  • Crime against women: Marginal rise of 0.7% (448,211 cases).
  • Crimes against SCs: ↑0.4% (57,789 cases).
  • Crimes against children: ↑9.2%.
  • Crimes against STs: ↑28.8%.

Cybercrime Trends:

• Rising: Cybercrime cases rose 31.2% in 2023, reaching 86,420 cases compared to 65,893 in 2022. The cybercrime rate increased from 4.8% in 2022 to 6.2% in 2023.
• Consistent rise since 2018:
  • 2018 – 27,248 cases
  • 2019 – 44,735 cases
  • 2020 – 50,035 cases
  • 2021 – 52,974 cases
  • 2022 – 65,893 cases
  • 2023 – 86,420 cases
• Motives behind cybercrimes:
  • Fraud: 68.9% of total cases (59,526 cases) – the largest category.
  • Sexual exploitation: 4.9% (4,199 cases).
  • Extortion: 3.8% (3,326 cases).

State-Wise Data on Cribercrime:

• Karnataka: Highest with 21,889 cases in 2023 (sharp rise from 8,136 in 2021 and 12,556 in 2022). Included 18,166 cases of cheating by personation and 1,007 obscene video transfers.
• Telangana: 18,236 cases in 2023 (up from 15,297 in 2022).
• Uttar Pradesh: 10,794 cases in 2023 (up from 10,117 in 2022).

Economic Offences (Broader Category):

• Total cases in 2023: 2,04,973 (6% increase from 1,93,385 in 2022).
• Categories:
  • Forgery, cheating and fraud (FCF) – 1,81,553 cases.
  • Criminal breach of trust – 22,759 cases.
  • Counterfeiting – 661 cases.

Analysis and Implications:

• Crime patterns shifting: From traditional violent crimes to economic and technology-driven crimes.
• Shift in crime categorisation and tracking: It is the last annual report under the IPC, as the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) came into force in July 2024.
• Digital fraud: It is the biggest challenge in India’s cybercrime landscape. The concentration of cases in Karnataka, Telangana, and UP suggests urbanisation, IT penetration, and digital adoption are key drivers.
• Economic offences’ steady rise: Highlights the need for robust financial cybersecurity mechanisms.

Way Ahead:

• Strengthening cybersecurity infrastructure and digital literacy programs are crucial.
• Equipping law enforcement agencies: With advanced cyber forensic tools and training.
• Enhanced public-private collaboration: In monitoring, prevention, and quick response mechanisms.
• Multi-stakeholder approach: Covering government, judiciary, tech companies, and citizens—can mitigate risks and build a resilient digital ecosystem.

Context

• With only a third of the time left before the 2030 deadline for the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the urgency of reimagining global cooperation has never been more pressing.
• Among the most promising frameworks for collective progress is South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC), an approach rooted in solidarity, mutual respect, and shared learning.
• First formalised through the Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA) in 1978, SSTC has evolved into a vital mechanism for development, offering cost-effective, replicable, and contextually relevant solutions in a rapidly changing global landscape.

The Evolution and Relevance of SSTC

• Unlike traditional aid models, SSTC operates on principles of equality and mutual benefit, enabling developing nations to learn from one another’s experiences.
• Its importance has grown in an era defined by geopolitical instability, climate change, and widening inequality.
• By amplifying the strengths of developing countries and pooling resources, SSTC provides more sustainable and scalable solutions at a time when funding for humanitarian and development efforts is shrinking.
• Triangular cooperation further expands this framework by connecting developing nations with traditional donors, emerging economies, civil society, and the private sector.
• This diversified partnership approach enhances accountability, trust, and inclusivity, resulting in development models that are people-centred and resilient.

India’s Philosophy and Leadership in SSTC

• India’s development philosophy is anchored in Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, the idea that the world is one family.
• This ethos informs its role as a key driver of SSTC, where it combines moral leadership with practical innovation.
• India has consistently positioned itself as an advocate for sovereignty, inclusion, and multilateral cooperation.
• Concrete contributions highlight India’s leadership:
  • Global advocacy and diplomacy: Hosting the Voice of the Global South Summits and pushing for permanent African Union membership in the G20.
  • Institutional mechanisms: Establishing the Development Partnership Administration and implementing the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, which has trained professionals in over 160 countries.
  • Financial support: Launching the India-UN Development Partnership Fund, which has financed over 75 projects across 56 countries.
  • Technological innovation: Sharing digital public infrastructure models like Aadhaar and UPI, alongside advancements in climate resilience, healthcare, and sustainable financing.

India and the World Food Programme: A Model of Innovation

• India’s collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP) provides a striking example of how SSTC can generate scalable solutions.
• Over six decades, this partnership has produced innovations that improved India’s food security and now serve as models for other nations.
• Notable initiatives include:
  • Annapurti (Grain ATMs) for efficient food distribution.
  • Optimised national supply chains for the public distribution system.
  • Women-led Take-Home Ration programmes improving nutrition at scale.
  • National rice fortification projects enhancing dietary quality.
• These interventions exemplify how localised innovation can achieve global relevance, offering replicable models for countries facing similar challenges.

Financing and Scaling SSTC

• Sustained progress requires strong institutions and predictable financing. Encouragingly, contributions to SSTC have steadily grown.
• In the past three decades, 47 governments have supported the UN Fund for South-South Cooperation, benefitting people in 155 countries.
• The India-UN Fund has further extended these efforts, particularly in Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS).
• In 2024 alone, the WFP mobilised over $10.9 million from Global South countries and the private sector for SSTC projects targeting Zero Hunger (SDG 2).
• Initiatives like rice fortification in Nepal and development projects in Lao PDR demonstrate the tangible outcomes of these partnerships.

The Way Forward: Towards a Renewed Spirit of Partnership

• The 2025 theme for UN Day for South-South and Triangular Cooperation, New Opportunities and Innovation through SSTC, captures the pressing need to invest in creativity, knowledge-sharing, and institutional strength.
• The challenges ahead demand not only technical solutions but also a new spirit of partnership grounded in equality, innovation, and mutual accountability.
• SSTC is not merely a diplomatic instrument; it is a transformative pathway.
• By valuing contributions from all nations, nurturing innovation, and prioritising the needs of communities, it can drive progress towards a more equitable and sustainable global future.

Conclusion

• The trajectory of SSTC illustrates how solidarity among developing nations can generate lasting global impact.
• India’s leadership, through innovation, financing, and advocacy, showcases the transformative potential of this model.
• Yet, achieving the SDGs requires more than isolated successes; it calls for a collective renewal of partnerships across sectors and regions.
• In this shared journey, SSTC offers both a compass and a lifeline, guiding the world toward a future of inclusivity, resilience, and sustainability.

Context

• The global fight against terrorism is often portrayed as a unified front, spearheaded by international bodies such as the United Nations (UN).
• Yet recent developments have exposed troubling contradictions at the heart of this struggle.
• Pakistan, a country long accused of sponsoring and sheltering terrorist organisations, has been granted leadership positions within the very UN committees designed to combat terrorism.
• This paradox not only undermines the credibility of the UN but also poses serious risks to regional and global security.

Pakistan’s Terror Infrastructure

• For decades, Pakistan has been accused of nurturing terrorism as a tool of state policy.
• From harbouring Osama bin Laden in Abbottabad, just a short distance from its military academy, to providing direct support for groups such as Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), its role is well documented.
• High-profile incidents such as the 2008 Mumbai attacks, the 2019 Pulwama bombing, and the April 2025 Pahalgam attack highlight a sustained pattern of cross-border terrorism nurtured on Pakistani soil.
• India’s response to the latest attack, Operation Sindoor, underscored the entrenched nature of this terror infrastructure.
• Further evidence came from the presence of Pakistani officials at the funerals of slain militants, demonstrating institutional complicity.
• The continuing prominence of UN-designated terrorists like Hafiz Saeed, who remains politically and socially active despite his supposed imprisonment, reinforces Pakistan’s status as a terror shelter.

The UN’s Contradictory Decisions

• Against this backdrop, Pakistan’s elevation to leadership roles in the UN’s counter-terrorism mechanisms is deeply troubling.
• In June 2025, Pakistan was appointed to chair the Taliban Sanctions Committee and serve as vice-chair of the Counter-Terrorism Committee.
• By July, it even assumed the rotating presidency of the UN Security Council.
• These decisions echo earlier controversies, such as Libya chairing the Human Rights Commission or Saudi Arabia leading the Women’s Rights Commission.
• Four key issues emerge:
  • Contradiction of Mandates: Pakistan’s sponsorship of terror groups directly violates the objectives of the UN committees it now leads.
  • Weak Vetting Standards: Its removal from the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) grey list in 2022 despite ongoing concerns about terror financing reflects systemic leniency.
  • Geopolitical Bias: Major powers often prioritise strategic or economic interests over moral imperatives, enabling Pakistan’s ascent.
  • Dangerous Precedent: Rewarding duplicity legitimises state-sponsored terrorism and sends the message that diplomatic packaging can outweigh security realities.
• The situation was compounded when the International Monetary Fund (IMF) approved a $1 billion loan for Pakistan in May 2025, sparking concerns that the funds might be diverted to sustain terror networks.

Implications for India and Global Security

• The UN’s decisions undermine India’s efforts to highlight Pakistan as a state sponsor of terrorism.
• With a foothold in UN counter-terrorism bodies, Pakistan can shape global narratives, deflect accusations, and even obstruct sanctions against its proxy groups.
• It also gains leverage to weaken India’s diplomatic engagement with the Taliban regime and project itself as a responsible international actor.
• For India, the challenge is twofold: neutralising Pakistan’s diplomatic manoeuvres while simultaneously reinforcing its own security.
• Countermeasures must include:
  • Leveraging alliances with UNSC members to balance Pakistan’s influence.
  • Highlighting Pakistan’s terror links in global forums and pushing for stringent accountability.
  • Deepening engagement with Afghanistan, including humanitarian aid missions, to reduce Pakistan’s sway over the Taliban.
  • Launching a global information campaign through media, academia, and diaspora networks to expose Pakistan’s duplicity.
  • Strengthening intelligence and cyber-security frameworks to mitigate asymmetric threats.

The UN’s Crisis of Integrity

• The UN’s willingness to overlook Pakistan’s terror links raises profound questions about its moral compass and credibility.
• By placing Pakistan in charge of counter-terrorism, the UN risks undermining its own authority, alienating victims of terrorism, and emboldening state sponsors of extremism.
• The appointment also reflects a larger pattern of selective morality in international governance, where political convenience trumps ethical consistency.

Conclusion

• The paradox of Pakistan’s elevation to UN counter-terrorism leadership illustrates the dangerous gap between rhetoric and reality in global governance.
• For India, the challenge lies not just in managing Pakistan’s duplicity but also in ensuring that the international community recognises the threat such decisions pose to collective security.
• Ultimately, the issue is larger than India or Pakistan: it is about whether the UN can remain a credible arbiter in the fight against terrorism.
• If state sponsors of terror are allowed to dictate the global counter-terrorism agenda, the world risks legitimising extremism instead of eradicating it.

Why in news?

India has signed a new contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) granting exclusive rights to explore Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS) in the Carlsberg Ridge of the Indian Ocean. With this, India has become the first country in the world to hold two such ISA contracts, commanding the largest seabed area allocated internationally for PMS exploration.

The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR), Goa, will begin exploration in 2026 through geophysical and hydrographic surveys. India’s application, submitted in 2024, was approved last week, allotting a 10,000 sq km area in the Carlsberg Ridge.

This builds on its earlier 2016 contract for exploration in the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges, marking both a scientific breakthrough and a strategic advantage.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Polymetallic Sulphides and Their Importance for India
• India’s Experience in PMS Exploration
• Significance of the Carlsberg Ridge
• How PMS Exploration Differs from Other Underwater Mineral Searches?
• How ISA Allocates Mineral Exploration Sites?
• India’s Plans for Additional Mineral Exploration in the Indian Ocean

Polymetallic Sulphides and Their Importance for India

• PMS are rich seabed deposits containing copper, zinc, lead, gold, silver, and trace amounts of rare and precious elements.
• Found near hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor, these deposits form when seawater seeps into cracks, interacts with magma beneath the Earth’s crust, and resurfaces as mineral-rich hot water that solidifies on the seabed.
• For India, PMS exploration is vital as land-based reserves of such minerals are limited.
• Securing these resources is crucial for strategic industries, renewable energy systems, high-technology applications, and green technologies, thereby enhancing the country’s resource security and self-reliance.

India’s Experience in PMS Exploration

• Since signing its first PMS exploration contract with the International Seabed Authority (ISA) in 2016, India’s National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) has carried out extensive surveys in the central and southwest Indian Ocean ridges, building significant expertise and infrastructure.
• The government’s Deep Ocean Mission has strengthened these efforts by adding deep-sea vessels, advanced tools like Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs).
• The upcoming Matsya submersible under the Samudrayaan mission, which will further expand exploration capacity.
• NCPOR follows a three-phase plan:
  • Reconnaissance surveys with ship-based tools to locate potential PMS sites.
  • Near-seabed surveys using AUVs and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) to confirm deposits.
  • Resource evaluation of identified PMS areas for assessing their economic potential.

Significance of the Carlsberg Ridge

• The Carlsberg Ridge, part of the mid-ocean ridge system in the Indian Ocean, was formed by seafloor spreading between the Indian Plate and Somali Plate about 40 million years ago.
• With a slow spreading rate of 2.4–3.3 cm per year, it features rugged flanking topography and a median valley typical of slow-spreading ridges.
• The ridge hosts hydrothermal vent systems, making it a potential hotspot for Polymetallic Sulphide (PMS) deposits.
• India has been studying these systems for over three decades.
• Strategically, its proximity — located near 2°N latitude, much closer to India than the Central and Southwest Indian Ridges at 26°S — makes it highly significant for resource security and scientific exploration.

How PMS Exploration Differs from Other Underwater Mineral Searches?

• PMS exploration is far more complex than other seabed mineral investigations.
• PMS deposits occur near hydrothermal vents along mid-ocean ridges, at depths of 2,000–5,000 metres, where the terrain is rocky, uneven, and remote.
• Survey operations require deep-sea vessels with dynamic positioning, precise navigation, and advanced communication systems.
• Unlike other explorations, PMS demands a multidisciplinary team of marine geologists, geophysicists, oceanographers, biologists, and deep-sea technologists.
• Exploration methods involve ship-mounted geophysical surveys for reconnaissance, and Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs) and Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) for detailed near-seabed mapping and sample collection.
• Advanced tools are essential to accurately analyse mineral composition, making PMS exploration one of the most technically demanding deep-sea missions.

How ISA Allocates Mineral Exploration Sites?

• The International Seabed Authority (ISA), established under the UNCLOS framework, manages mineral exploration in international waters.
• Countries, through their governments, public sector bodies, or sponsored entities, apply to the ISA for exploration rights.
• Applications must include details of the proposed area, a work plan, environmental baseline studies, and proof of technical and financial capacity.
• The ISA’s Legal and Technical Commission (LTC) reviews these submissions for compliance.
• If approved, the application is forwarded to the ISA Council for final clearance, granting the applicant exclusive exploration rights in the designated seabed area.

India’s Plans for Additional Mineral Exploration in the Indian Ocean

• As part of its Blue Economy initiatives, India is pursuing more seabed mineral exploration rights in the Indian Ocean.
• Beyond its existing contracts for Polymetallic Sulphides (PMS), India has applied to the ISA for rights to explore cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts on the Afanasy-Nikitin Seamount in the Central Indian Ocean. This application is currently under review.
• Securing such rights would further strengthen India’s access to strategic and critical minerals vital for technology, renewable energy, and long-term resource security.

Why in news?

While the Union government promotes local electronics manufacturing through initiatives like semiconductor fabs and the Electronics Component Manufacturing Scheme, e-waste recycling remains a weak link.

Millions of tonnes of discarded consumer electronics and appliances have piled up in recent years. Policymakers see recycling as crucial to extract scarce and valuable metals, especially as electronics consumption is projected to surge in the coming years.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• E-Waste
• Electronics Consumption and Indigenous Push
• E-Waste Volumes and Processing
• Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework and Associated Concerns
• Future Potential

E-Waste

• E-waste refers to discarded electronic devices such as smartphones, laptops, TVs, fridges, and chargers.
• While these often contain valuable materials, they are usually dumped instead of being reused or recycled.
• Need for effective e-waste management
  • Health Risks - E-waste contains toxic substances like lead, mercury, and cadmium. Improper handling leads to contamination of soil and water, causing neurological disorders, kidney failure, and long-term chronic diseases.
  • Environmental Damage - Hazardous recycling practices pollute air, soil, and water. They also release greenhouse gases, worsening climate change and harming ecosystems.
  • Economic Loss - Inefficient recycling causes wastage of valuable resources such as gold, silver, and copper, which could otherwise be recovered and reused in production.
• Link with Environmental, social, and governance (ESG) and SDGs
  • E-waste management aligns with global sustainability frameworks:
    • SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production.
    • SDG 13: Climate Action.
  • It strengthens India’s ESG commitments by integrating resource efficiency and environmental protection into growth.

Electronics Consumption and Indigenous Push

• India, despite having over 93.9 crore mobile broadband connections, accounts for only 4% of global electronics consumption.
• Fragile global supply chains have pushed the government to expand domestic manufacturing and raw material access, including a ₹1,500 crore mineral recycling scheme announced in September.

E-Waste Volumes and Processing

• According to the Global E-Waste Monitor 2020, India is the world’s third-largest e-waste generator after China and the USA.
  • With India being one of the fastest-growing electronics markets, this trend is expected to rise further.
  • As per one report, India’s electronics industry to grow at a CAGR of 16.6%, from USD 215 billion in FY19 to USD 540 billion by FY25.
  • This rapid expansion will add significantly to e-waste volumes.
• India generated an estimated 4.17 million metric tonnes of e-waste in 2022, but only one-third was processed through proper channels.
• Legal Framework for E-Waste Management
  • Improper disposal of end-of-life EEE products has severe negative externalities, including risks to human health and environmental degradation. Effective management is essential to mitigate these harms.
  • E-waste in India is regulated by the E-Waste (Management) Rules, 2022, published by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC). These rules came into force on April 1, 2023.
• State Pollution Control Boards, responsible for inventorying, use inconsistent methods, causing discrepancies between Indian and international data.
• The Central Pollution Control Board has begun auditing recyclers, with over 50 firms checked in recent months.
• Companies are working to aggregate informal operations into formal “mandi”-style streams, recovering metals such as gold, copper, aluminium, and steel.

Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Framework and Associated Concerns

• The government has introduced EPR rules requiring manufacturers to collect end-of-life appliances for recycling metals like copper, aluminium, nickel, cobalt, and lithium.
• This move is partly driven by geopolitical risks, such as China’s export restrictions on rare earth elements.
• Dominance of Informal Sector
  • A 2023 Indian Cellular and Electronics Association report flagged the dominance of the informal sector in India’s recycling ecosystem.
  • These operators focus on repairing and harvesting components, but remain outside formal frameworks, hindering the creation of a circular economy.
  • Even within EPR, issues like “paper trading” persist, with recyclers overstating volumes for financial incentives.
• Concerns on Traceability and Best Practices
  • Experts stress that malpractices plague the sector, with many players lacking true metal extraction capacity.
  • They highlighted the need for third-party audits, better environmental safeguards, and life-cycle visibility of products.
  • Inventorying remains weak in India, unlike Western countries that count products as potential e-waste from the point of sale.

Future Potential

• While the share of recycled precious metals in India’s supply chains remains negligible, industry leaders argue that with the right policy push, India could meet up to 70% of its rare earth requirements within 18 months.
• Recycling’s impact is growing each year, highlighting its potential as a key pillar in India’s electronics ecosystem.

Why in news?

Delhi CM Rekha Gupta announced that during cultural events like Ramlila and Durga Puja, loudspeaker use will be allowed till midnight, extending the usual 10 pm limit by two hours.

The move aligns with legal provisions that permit state governments to relax loudspeaker restrictions during festivals and cultural occasions, while still operating within the framework of India’s Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Legal Framework Governing Loudspeakers in India
• Court Rulings on Loudspeaker Use in India
• Concerns Over Delhi’s Loudspeaker Extension

Legal Framework Governing Loudspeakers in India

• The Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, regulate the use of loudspeakers.
• Rule 5(1) requires written permission from authorities before use, while Rule 5(2) bans their use between 10 pm and 6 am, except in closed premises like auditoriums or conference halls.
• The rules prescribe maximum permissible noise levels for different areas, categorised as industrial, commercial, residential and silence zones.
  • For residential areas, the daytime limit (6 am to 10 pm) is 55 decibels (dB) while that for nighttime is 45 dB.
    • For context, a whisper is about 30 dB, while normal conversation is about 60 dB.
  • Importantly, Rule 5(3) allows state governments to relax restrictions, permitting loudspeaker use till midnight for up to 15 days a year during cultural or religious festivities.
  • Delhi’s decision to extend the loudspeaker deadline for festivals falls within this legal provision.

Court Rulings on Loudspeaker Use in India

• Over the past two decades, Indian courts have shaped a strong jurisprudence on noise pollution, balancing religious freedom with the fundamental right to a peaceful environment.
• Supreme Court: Loudspeakers Not a Fundamental Right
  • In 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that no religion mandates prayers by disturbing others, rejecting the use of loudspeakers as a right under Article 25 (freedom of religion).
  • In 2005, it further held that the right to a noise-free environment is implicit under Article 21, and “aural aggression” cannot be justified under free speech.
  • This ruling established the 10 pm–6 am loudspeaker ban.
  • The Court upheld Rule 5(3) allowing exemptions till midnight for up to 15 days annually, but imposed strict conditions: only state governments can grant it, it must apply statewide, and silence zones remain excluded.
• High Court Directions
  • High Courts have strictly enforced these principles:
    • Bombay HC (2016): Loudspeakers not essential to religion; pulled up government for lax enforcement.
    • Karnataka HC (2018): Allowed indoor concert use at night, provided boundary noise limits were respected.
    • Punjab & Haryana HC (2019): Made written permission mandatory for all religious use, set up complaint mechanisms.
    • Allahabad HC (2020): Azaan is essential, but loudspeakers are not historically required.
• Recent Ruling: Bombay HC (2025)
  • The court introduced a graded penalty system: caution for first offence, fines for repeat, and seizure for continued violations.
  • It also mandated considering cumulative noise levels from multiple sources and suggested modern enforcement, such as mobile decibel apps and auto-limiters in speakers.

Concerns Over Delhi’s Loudspeaker Extension

• Environmental experts criticised Delhi’s decision to allow loudspeakers till midnight, calling it a backward step that undermines Noise Pollution Rules designed to protect children, patients, and residents.
• Activists warned that public health is being sacrificed for short-term convenience, noting that citizens already face excessive noise from construction and commercial establishments.
• In 2024, Delhi Police received over 40,000 noise complaints, with 82% linked to DJs and loudspeakers.
• This prompted fresh guidelines in March, requiring written permission for loudspeaker use and booking violators under Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita Sections 270, 292, and 293.
• The amended order also tightened limits, mandating that private sound systems cannot exceed ambient noise standards by more than 5 dBA, compared to the earlier 10 dBA allowance.

Why in news?

Climate activist Sonam Wangchuk, leading the movement for Ladakh’s statehood and Sixth Schedule protections, was detained under the National Security Act (NSA) and shifted to Jodhpur jail.

The Centre blamed him for allegedly instigating violent protests in Leh, where four people were killed in police firing and 50 injured.

The case has drawn attention to the NSA, one of India’s toughest preventive detention laws, used in the past against separatists, gangsters, and radical preachers. The law allows governments to pre-emptively detain individuals deemed a threat to public order or national security.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• About Preventive Detention
• Preventive Detention and the NSA
• What the NSA Provides
• Wangchuk’s Legal Remedies
• Past Use and Misuse of the NSA

About Preventive Detention

• Preventive detention is the practice of detaining a person not for a crime already committed, but to prevent them from acting in a manner that could threaten public order, security, or essential supplies.
• It aims to stop potential harm before it occurs.
• Difference from Punitive Detention
  • Preventive detention: Detains individuals to prevent a future act considered harmful. It is anticipatory in nature.
  • Punitive detention: Imposed as punishment after conviction for an offence already committed, based on due process of law.
• Constitutional Provision
  • The Indian Constitution permits preventive detention under Article 22.
    • Article 22 has two parts—the first part deals with cases of ordinary law, which includes situations where an individual is detained as part of a criminal investigation.
    • The second part deals with cases of preventive detention law, which pertains to the detention of individuals without a trial or conviction.
  • A person can be detained up to 3 months without Advisory Board approval; beyond that, detention requires approval by an Advisory Board of judges.
  • Grounds of detention must be communicated, but certain facts may be withheld in public interest.

Preventive Detention and the NSA

• Preventive detention in India traces back to colonial times and was institutionalised post-Independence through the Preventive Detention Act, 1950.
• It was followed by the controversial Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA), 1971, repealed after the Emergency.
• In 1980, the National Security Act (NSA) was enacted, empowering the Centre, states, District Magistrates, and Police Commissioners (when authorised) to detain individuals pre-emptively.
• Unlike punitive arrests under criminal law, NSA detention is preventive, aimed at stopping individuals from acting in ways “prejudicial to India’s defence, foreign relations, national security, public order, or essential supplies.”
• The Act gives governments wide-ranging powers to address threats, while incorporating certain procedural safeguards to check misuse.

What the NSA Provides?

• Under NSA, detention orders function like warrants of arrest, allowing authorities to hold individuals in designated places, transfer them across states, and impose conditions.
• Grounds of detention must be communicated within 5 to 15 days, and detainees can submit a representation to the government.
• An Advisory Board of High Court judges must review the case within 3 weeks and order release if there is “no sufficient cause.”
• Detention can last up to 12 months, though it may be revoked earlier.
• However, safeguards are limited:
  • detainees cannot have legal representation before the Advisory Board, and
  • the government may withhold facts citing public interest, leaving significant powers in official hands.

Wangchuk’s Legal Remedies

• Sonam Wangchuk can challenge his detention under the NSA by filing a representation to the government or await the Advisory Board’s review within three weeks, which must order release if no sufficient cause is found.
• He may also approach the High Court or Supreme Court under Articles 226 or 32 to contest the legality of detention.
• Additionally, the government itself may revoke the order at any stage.
• Until these processes conclude, the NSA permits detention without formal charges or open-court evidence, giving authorities wide leeway in holding him.

Past Use and Misuse of the NSA

• The NSA has been invoked in several high-profile cases.
• In 2023, radical Sikh preacher Amritpal Singh was detained under NSA and moved to Dibrugarh jail.
• Earlier, Bhim Army chief Chandrashekhar Azad was booked in 2017, though the order was later revoked by the Supreme Court.
• During the anti-CAA protests (2020), multiple protesters in Uttar Pradesh were detained under the Act.
• The law has also targeted individuals such as Dr Kafeel Khan, whose 2020 detention was struck down by the Allahabad High Court.
• States like Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh have applied NSA in “Love Jihad” cases, communal violence, cow slaughter, and habitual crime, often stretching its definition of national security.
• Courts have intervened in cases of misuse: in 2012, the Supreme Court struck down the detention of a man accused of kerosene black-marketing as unjustified.
• These instances show a pattern where governments justify NSA as vital for security, while critics denounce it as a blunt instrument prone to abuse.

Why in the News?

• The CAG’s decadal analysis of States’ macro-fiscal health highlights uneven revenue sources, rising debt burdens, and the welfare paradox shaping fiscal sustainability across India.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• CAG Report (Introduction, States’ Macro-Fiscal Landscape, Revenue Sources, Rising Borrowings, Welfare Paradox, Implications, etc.)

Introduction

• India’s States collectively manage some of the largest public budgets in the world, often surpassing those of smaller countries in size.
• The recently released decadal analysis of States’ macro-fiscal health by the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) offers a crucial snapshot of how reforms, growth, and crises such as the pandemic have shaped their fiscal trajectories.
• While some States reported impressive revenue surpluses, others struggle under heavy debt burdens, revealing stark disparities in fiscal sustainability and policy choices.

States’ Macro-Fiscal Landscape in India

• In the early 2000s, Indian States were burdened with chronic deficits. Reforms in tax collection, GST implementation, and high growth during the 2010s improved finances, with some States recording surpluses.
• However, the pandemic reversed these gains, as shrinking revenues and soaring emergency expenditure pushed most States back into fiscal distress.
• States today present a mixed picture: while richer States like Maharashtra fund a large share of their expenditure internally, poorer States such as Arunachal Pradesh remain highly dependent on Union transfers.
• This vertical imbalance in fiscal capacity underscores the unevenness of India’s federal fiscal architecture.

Uneven Revenue Sources

• The CAG report shows that States rely on highly variable revenue streams. For example:

• Kerala’s lotteries contributed nearly Rs. 12,000 crore in 2022-23.
• Odisha’s mining royalties made up 90% of its non-tax income.
• Telangana raised nearly Rs. 9,800 crore through land sales.

• Such revenues are volatile and unsustainable: lotteries depend on sales, royalties on global commodity prices, and land cannot be sold repeatedly.
• Even surplus-earning States like Uttar Pradesh generated only 42% of their receipts internally, leaning heavily on central transfers.

Rising Borrowings and Debt Burden

• The fiscal health of States is also reflected in their borrowing patterns:

• Andhra Pradesh tripled its borrowings to Rs. 1.86 lakh crore by 2022-23, with debt reaching 35% of GSDP.
• Bihar doubled its borrowings, pushing debt close to 39% of GSDP.
• Kerala’s debt burden remained high at 37% of GSDP despite curbing borrowings post-pandemic.
• Punjab continued its fiscal stress with liabilities touching 45% of GSDP.
• In contrast, Odisha reduced borrowings, lowering debt to 15% of GSDP, the lowest in India.

• The pandemic was a turning point: while some States like Karnataka and Maharashtra cut back borrowings after 2021, others like Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan kept expanding them, signalling divergent fiscal strategies.

The Welfare Paradox

• A striking theme of the CAG analysis is the welfare paradox.
• Despite reporting surpluses or stable debt, many States underfund key welfare sectors such as education, health, and rural infrastructure.
• Instead, reliance on off-budget loans, GST compensation arrears, and central transfers creates a façade of fiscal stability.
• Political populism adds another layer. Free power, farm waivers, and cash transfers defer costs into opaque mechanisms like guarantees and special-purpose vehicles.

Implications for Fiscal Federalism

• The CAG findings highlight deeper structural issues in India’s fiscal federalism:

• Dependence on volatile revenues limits the States’ capacity to plan long-term welfare.
• Rising borrowings pose risks of debt overhang, especially in poorer and smaller States.
• Vertical fiscal imbalance perpetuates reliance on the Centre, undermining financial autonomy.
• Populist welfare policies erode fiscal discipline while failing to deliver sustainable outcomes.

• The analysis suggests that India’s States must prioritise capital expenditure over routine subsidies, diversify revenue sources, and strengthen fiscal transparency.
• Without such reforms, India risks sustaining one of the largest welfare States in the world on one of the thinnest fiscal bases among middle-income economies.

Conclusion

• The CAG’s decadal review underscores the complexity of States’ macro-fiscal health.
• While some States like Odisha demonstrate prudent fiscal management, others, such as Punjab and Kerala, remain vulnerable to debt traps and volatile revenues.
• The welfare paradox, lavish spending amid weak revenues, reflects the tension between developmental needs and fiscal sustainability.
• For India’s federal system to remain resilient, States must pursue balanced fiscal strategies that combine growth, welfare, and sustainability.

Why in News?

• India has released draft Corporate Average Fuel Efficiency (CAFE) 3 norms through the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE).
• These norms aim to tighten fuel efficiency and emission standards while addressing industry demands for flexibility, especially for small cars and electric vehicles (EVs).

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Current CAFE Framework in India
• Key Features of Proposed CAFE 3 Norms
• Conclusion

Current CAFE Framework in India:

• CAFE:
  • Introduced in 2017 by BEE, Ministry of Power, to regulate fuel consumption and carbon emissions from passenger vehicles.
  • These norms apply to vehicles running on petrol, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), hybrids, and electric vehicles (EVs) weighing less than 3,500 kg.
  • Designed to reduce oil dependency and curb air pollution, pushing automakers to lower carbon dioxide emissions while incentivising the production of EVs, hybrids, and CNG vehicles.
• CAFE 2: In 2022-23, the norms were tightened (fuel consumption capped at 4.78 litres/100 km, and CO₂ emissions capped at 113 g/km) with increased penalties for non-compliance.
• Need for CAFE 3:
  • In the USA, EU, China, Japan, smaller lightweight cars receive relaxed CO₂ norms.
  • However, India’s current framework is inverted, giving SUVs more relaxed limits and burdening small cars.
  • So, CAFE 3 seeks to align with global best practices.

Key Features of Proposed CAFE 3 Norms:

• Applicability:
  • Covers M1 category passenger vehicles with a seating capacity of 9 people (including the driver) and a maximum weight of 3,500 kilogram.
  • Non-compliance will attract penalties under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
• Efficiency targets:
  • Under CAFE 3, the efficiency formula is: [0.002 x (W – 1170) + c]. It is measured in petrol-equivalent litres per 100 kilometre.
  • Here, W is the average fleet weight, 1,170kg is the fixed constant for weight, 0.002 is a fixed constant multiplier, and ‘c’ is a constant that changes every year.
  • Since ‘c’ continues to decrease from FY28 to FY32, the rules will become stricter over time. This constant starts at 3.7264 in FY28, then subsequently drops to 3.0139 in FY32.
  • Lighter vehicles have easier compliance compared to heavier SUVs or premium cars.
• Incentives for small cars:
  • Additional relaxation of 3.0 g CO₂/km (capped at 9.0 g/km) for compact petrol cars (unladen mass up to 909 kg, engine capacity not exceeding 1200 cc and length not exceeding 4000 mm).
  • This is designed to revive the small car segment, which saw a 71% sales decline in six years.
  • Complementary policy: GST 2.0 reforms lowered GST on small cars from 28% to 18%.
• Boost for EVs and alternate fuels:
  • Super credits multipliers:
    • Companies could potentially obtain relaxation in their overall efficiency target as the norms propose to offer companies “super credits” based on the type of vehicle they sell.
    • Each EV sold will be counted three times while calculating a company’s average.
    • Plug-in hybrids will be counted 2.5 times, and strong hybrids twice.
    • Flex-fuel ethanol cars are given a smaller multiplier of 1.5.
  • Carbon Neutrality Factor (CNF) introduced:
    • CNF offers further relaxation on the targets based on the type of fuel used in a car.
    • For example, for petrol vehicles (E20 to E30) 8% CNF on tailpipe CO2; for flex fuel ethanol vehicles and strong hybrid electric vehicles 22.3% CNF on tailpipe CO2; etc.
• Emissions pooling:
  • Up to three carmakers can form a pool (to meet the targets jointly) and be treated as a single manufacturer.
  • Pool manager legally responsible for compliance and penalties.
  • Reduces compliance costs and encourages strategic alliances.

Conclusion:

• The proposed CAFE 3 norms mark a critical shift in India’s emission strategy—reviving small cars, incentivising EVs, and tightening long-term efficiency goals.
• If implemented effectively, they could reduce India’s oil import dependency, accelerate green mobility adoption, and align India’s policies with global climate commitments under the Paris Agreement.
• However, challenges remain in industry adaptation, consumer acceptance, and infrastructure readiness for alternative fuel vehicles.

Context

• Every year on September 29, the world observes the International Day of Awareness of Food Loss and Waste (IDAFLW).
• Far from being symbolic, this occasion underscores a crisis that quietly undermines both global food security and climate stability.
• Nearly one-third of all food produced worldwide is either lost or wasted, representing not only a missed opportunity to nourish people but also an immense drain on natural resources.
• As one of the world’s largest food producers, India faces this challenge acutely, with post-harvest losses imposing heavy economic, social, and environmental costs.

The Scale of the Problem

• India’s agricultural sector experiences substantial post-harvest losses across diverse crops and commodities.
• A 2022 study by NABCONS revealed that losses remain alarmingly high, cutting across fruits, vegetables, cereals, and livestock products.
• The economic toll is estimated at nearly ₹1.5 trillion annually, equivalent to 3.7% of India’s agricultural GDP.
• Fruits and vegetables are most at risk, with 10–15% spoilage rates, while even staples like wheat (4.2%) and paddy (4.8%) are far from immune.
• These figures translate into more than foregone nutrition; each tonne of food wasted reflects squandered water, energy, and labour.
• When scaled across India’s vast production, millions of tonnes of food are lost annually, with grave implications for farmer incomes, national food availability, and climate stability.

Food Loss and Climate Change

• Recent collaborative research by the FAO and NIFTEM, supported by the Green Climate Fund, quantified greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with post-harvest and retail waste across 30 crops and livestock products in India.
• Their findings were striking: modest percentage losses in cereals, particularly methane-intensive paddy, generate over 10 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions each year.
• Losses in livestock products, given their high resource footprint, compound the environmental burden.
• In total, food loss from these commodities contributes more than 33 million tonnes of CO₂-equivalent emissions annually.
• Unlike high-income countries where waste occurs primarily at the consumer end, India’s food loss happens largely at early stages, handling, processing, and distribution.
• This points to systemic challenges: inadequate infrastructure, fragmented supply chains, and limited adoption of modern technologies.

Pathways to Solutions

• Strengthening Infrastructure
  • While the scale of India’s food loss problem is daunting, solutions are within reach. Strengthening infrastructure is the cornerstone.
  • Cold chains, encompassing pre-cooling facilities, refrigerated transport, and modern storage, are vital for perishables such as dairy, meat, fruits, and vegetables.
  • Initiatives like the Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana (PMKSY) are already working to modernise India’s food logistics
• Affordable and Decentralized Technologies
  • In addition to large-scale infrastructure, affordable and decentralised technologies can empower smallholders.
  • Solar-powered cold storage units, low-cost cooling chambers, durable crates, and moisture-proof silos are practical tools to curb spoilage.
  • Complementing these are digital innovations: IoT sensors, AI-driven forecasting, and mobile platforms such as FAO’s Food Loss App (FLAPP), launched in 2023 and already used in over 30 countries, which help track and mitigate losses along the value chain.
• Foodbanks and Community Kitchens
  • At the retail and consumer level, surplus food can be redirected to food banks and community kitchens, ensuring nutritional redistribution.
  • Unavoidable waste can still serve productive purposes, being converted into compost, animal feed, or bioenergy.
  • Realising these circular solutions, however, requires robust policy support, from subsidies and credit guarantees to incentives for private sector participation.
• Shared Responsibility
  • Food loss is not a problem any single actor can solve in isolation. Governments must embed food loss reduction into national climate strategies and invest in resilient infrastructure.
  • Businesses must adopt circular economic models and scale technological innovations.
  • Civil society and academia can advance research and advocacy, while consumers must cultivate mindful practices to minimize waste and support redistribution efforts.

Conclusion

• The observance of IDAFLW is more than a reminder, it is a call to collective action.
• India stands at a crossroads where tackling food loss is essential not only to secure nutrition for its people but also to meet its climate goals and conserve overstretched resources.
• Every meal saved represents not just sustenance but also a safeguard for ecosystems and livelihoods.
• In this light, an empty plate should never signify waste; it should symbolise nourishment shared and resources preserved.

Context

• The rapid rise of Artificial Intelligence (AI) has sparked debates about its potential to transform industries, economies, and societies at large.
• Geoffrey Hinton, Nobel Laureate and pioneer of AI, recently warned that this revolution may enrich a select few while leaving the majority poorer.
• His cautionary note echoes a historical parallel known as the Engels’ pause, a period during the early Industrial Revolution when economic output soared but living standards for ordinary workers stagnated.
• The question that looms today is whether the world is entering a modern Engels’ pause in the AI era, one where productivity accelerates but shared prosperity lags behind.

The Engels’ Pause in Historical Context

• Coined by economist Robert Allen, the term Engels’ pause refers to early 19th-century Britain, where despite immense industrial expansion, real wages stagnated and inequality deepened.
• While Britain became the workshop of the world, ordinary households saw little improvement in welfare, as food absorbed most of their income and social inequalities widened.
• It was only decades later, through reforms, institutional changes, and new social contracts, that broad-based prosperity emerged.
• This historical paradox frames a crucial debate in the present: whether AI, as a general-purpose technology (GPT) akin to steam power or electricity, will generate similar delays between technological progress and widespread welfare gains.

AI as a General-Purpose Technology

• AI fits the profile of a GPT, capable of reshaping multiple industries simultaneously.
• As Agrawal, Gans, and Goldfarb (2018) argued, its unique economic contribution lies in drastically lowering the cost of prediction.
• Yet, as history shows, GPTs bring both growth and dislocation. They demand complementary innovations, institutional adaptation, and new skills before benefits trickle down.
• Without such adjustments, the gains are often captured by a few entrepreneurs or dominant firms, leaving the broader workforce vulnerable to job displacement and wage stagnation.

Signs of a Modern Engels’ Pause

• Productivity without wage growth
  • In Philippine call centres, AI copilots have boosted productivity by 30–50%, improving efficiency and cutting costs for firms.
  • Yet, workers’ wages have remained stagnant, and workloads have intensified. Rising living costs only compound the sense of declining welfare.
• Rising costs of complements
  • To remain relevant in the AI economy, workers must constantly reskill through coding boot camps, certifications, and training programs.
  • These costs parallel the 19th-century phenomenon where higher nominal wages were offset by surging food prices, leaving workers no better off.
• Concentration of gains and inequality
  • PwC projects that AI could add $15.7 trillion to global GDP by 2030. However, most gains are likely to accrue to the U.S., China, and a handful of firms controlling foundational models.
  • For much of the global workforce, particularly in developing economies, welfare improvements may be delayed or even denied.
• Job displacement and task transformation
  • From AI-powered hospitals in China to AI adoption in airports and public administration, tasks are rapidly being transformed.
  • While some roles are complemented, others are displaced, raising concerns about structural unemployment and growing inequality.

Lessons from History and Policy Responses

• The Industrial Revolution eventually delivered prosperity, but only after decades of inequality and social unrest, which prompted reforms such as trade unions, public education, and welfare institutions.
• The same logic applies today: governance, not technology alone, determines whether AI delivers broad human welfare.
• Key policy responses include:
  • Skills transition programs: Initiatives like Singapore’s SkillsFuture or Abu Dhabi’s AI-focused university (MBZUAI) exemplify efforts to build human capital for an AI-driven future.
  • Redistribution of AI rents: Mechanisms such as robot taxes, Universal Basic Income (UBI), and philanthropic contributions could help spread the benefits of AI more equitably.
  • AI infrastructure as a public good: Compute power and data access, the lifeblood of AI, must not remain prohibitively expensive or monopolised. Publicly funded open AI models, such as those launched in the UAE and Switzerland, mark steps in this direction.

Counterarguments and Optimism

• Critics of the Engels’ pause analogy argue that contemporary societies are better equipped than 19th-century Britain.
• Stronger welfare systems, faster technological diffusion, and the potential for AI to lower costs in healthcare, education, and energy could shorten or even prevent an extended pause.
• For instance, smartphones reached billions in under a decade, and AI assistants could follow a similar trajectory if deployed equitably.
• However, optimism must be tempered by caution. While macroeconomic gains may appear, many individuals may still face stagnant wages, rising costs, and insecure livelihoods.
• The challenge lies in ensuring that AI becomes a human welfare revolution, not just a productivity revolution.

Conclusion

• The spectre of a modern Engels’ pause warns that technological progress does not automatically translate into human welfare.
• History underscores that political will, institutional adaptation, and inclusive governance are crucial to bridging the gap between productivity and prosperity.
• AI governance today faces a stark choice: whether to allow an era of concentrated wealth and stagnant welfare, or to craft policies that ensure AI becomes a driver of broad-based human progress.
• The outcome, as history reminds us, will not be determined by technology alone, but by collective political and social choices.

Why in the News?

• The Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve in Himachal Pradesh has been included in UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves, making it India’s 13th site on the global list.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Cold Desert Reserve (Introduction, Biodiversity & Cultural Richness, Significance of Declaration, Future Outlook, etc.)

Introduction

• In a significant recognition of India’s conservation efforts, UNESCO has designated the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve in Himachal Pradesh as part of its prestigious World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR).
• This inclusion marks a global acknowledgement of the ecological, cultural, and scientific importance of the fragile Trans-Himalayan ecosystem.
• With this addition, India now has 13 biosphere reserves listed under UNESCO, highlighting the country’s commitment to biodiversity protection and sustainable development.

About the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve

• The Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve spans 7,770 sq. km. across Himachal Pradesh’s Lahaul-Spiti district.
• Situated at altitudes ranging from 3,300 to 6,600 meters, the region represents one of the coldest and driest ecosystems in the world.
• It covers landscapes such as windswept plateaus, glacial valleys, alpine lakes, and high-altitude deserts.
• The reserve integrates the Pin Valley National Park, Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary, Chandratal Wetland, and the Sarchu plains, making it a hub of biodiversity and cultural heritage.
• It is divided into three zones: core (2,665 sq. km), buffer (3,977 sq. km), and transition (1,128 sq. km), to balance conservation goals with sustainable community practices.

Biodiversity and Cultural Richness

• The Cold Desert is home to a diverse range of flora and fauna.
• It harbours 732 vascular plant species, including 30 endemics and 47 medicinal herbs crucial to the traditional Sowa Rigpa (Amchi) healing system.
• Among its iconic fauna are the snow leopard, Himalayan ibex, blue sheep, Himalayan wolf, and several bird species like the golden eagle and Himalayan snowcock.
• Around 12,000 residents inhabit scattered villages across the reserve.
• They continue to practice traditional pastoralism, yak and goat herding, and small-scale farming of barley and peas.
• The communities also maintain ancient Tibetan herbal medicine traditions, often guided by Buddhist monasteries and local councils that regulate the use of alpine resources.

Global and National Significance

• The UNESCO designation underscores the urgent need to protect fragile Himalayan ecosystems, which face mounting challenges from climate change and unchecked tourism.
• It also elevates Himachal’s cold desert to global prominence, ensuring international cooperation in conservation, eco-tourism, and climate research.
• The recognition came during the 37th session of UNESCO’s International Coordinating Council of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) in Paris.
• Globally, UNESCO has added 26 new biosphere reserves across 21 countries this year, the highest number in two decades, expanding WNBR to 785 sites in 142 countries.

India’s Growing Biosphere Network

• With the addition of the Cold Desert Biosphere Reserve, India’s tally of UNESCO-recognised biospheres has reached 13.
• This reflects the country’s broader strategy to align conservation with sustainable community development.
• India’s biospheres now include diverse ecosystems, from the Nilgiri and Sundarbans to the Great Nicobar and Pachmarhi.
• Union Environment Ministry noted that this achievement follows the inclusion of two new Ramsar sites in India, bringing the country’s total wetlands of international importance to 93.
• The move reflects India’s consistent push to integrate ecological preservation with international frameworks.

Future Outlook

• The UNESCO recognition is expected to encourage greater research collaborations, promote responsible tourism, and improve climate resilience strategies in high-altitude ecosystems.
• It also calls attention to India’s role in safeguarding fragile mountain landscapes that are both biodiversity hotspots and cultural treasures.
• The designation strengthens the global narrative of balancing conservation with community livelihoods, offering India an opportunity to showcase its traditional knowledge systems, pastoral practices, and eco-cultural heritage.

Why in News?

• The Supreme Court of India has approved JSW Steel’s $2.3 billion (₹19,350 crore) acquisition of Bhushan Power and Steel (BPSL), reversing its earlier decision of liquidation.
• This judgment strengthens the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016, by prioritising revival of distressed firms over liquidation.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Understanding Insolvency and Bankruptcy and the IBC
• Process Followed under the IBC
• Supreme Court’s Ruling
• Background
• Importance of BPSL to JSW Steel
• Liquidation Trends and Broader Implications of Judgment
• Conclusion

Understanding Insolvency and Bankruptcy and the IBC:

• Insolvency vs Bankruptcy: While insolvency results from an inability to pay debts due to a lack of assets, bankruptcy occurs when an application is presented to an authority declaring insolvency and requesting to be declared bankrupt, which will last until discharge.
• About the IBC 2016:
  • It is the bankruptcy law of India which seeks to consolidate the existing framework by creating a single law for insolvency and bankruptcy.
  • It is a one stop solution for resolving insolvencies which previously was a long process that did not offer an economically viable arrangement.
  • It aims to protect the interests of small investors and make the process of doing business less cumbersome.
• Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI):
  • It is the regulator for overseeing insolvency proceedings and entities like Insolvency Professional Agencies (IPA), Insolvency Professionals (IP) and Information Utilities (IU) in India.
  • It was established on 1 October 2016 and given statutory powers through the IBC 2016.
  • It functions under the Ministry of Corporate Affairs and covers Individuals, Companies, Limited Liability Partnerships and Partnership firms.

Process Followed under the IBC:

• Initiation of CIRP:
  • Corporate Debtor (CD): A company that has taken loans and defaults on repayment.
  • Who can Apply: Either the creditor or the debtor can initiate proceedings.
  • Relevant Section: Corporate Insolvency Resolution Process (CIRP) is governed by Section 6 of the IBC.
• Threshold for default:
  • Earlier limit: ₹1 lakh default.
  • Revised limit: Raised to ₹1 crore during the pandemic to reduce undue stress on companies.
• Adjudicating Authority (AA):
  • Designated authority: National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) benches across India.
  • Role: Receives insolvency applications from creditors or debtors.
  • Timeline: Must admit or reject application within 14 days, with reasons for delay if not disposed within this period.
• Commencement of CIRP:
  • Trigger point: CIRP begins once NCLT admits the application.
  • Resolution timeline: As per amendment, the process must be completed within 330 days (including litigation period).
• Outcome of CIRP:
  • Resolution: Revival of the corporate debtor through restructuring or takeover by a Successful Resolution Applicant (SRA).
  • Liquidation: If no resolution plan is approved within the stipulated period.

Supreme Court’s Ruling:

• Revival of BPSL: JSW Steel has invested in modernisation, safeguarded thousands of jobs, and ensured that the company will continue to operate.
• IBC objective fulfilled: The court emphasised that the essence of IBC is to convert loss-making firms into profitable entities.
• On claims: Creditors’ demand for an additional ₹6,100 crore was dismissed. The Court stated that once the Committee of Creditors (CoC) approves a plan, reopening claims undermines the law.
• CCDs as equity: Compulsorily Convertible Debentures (CCDs) issued by the Successful Resolution Applicant (SRA) must be treated as equity.

Background:

• The SC had earlier ordered liquidation, citing JSW Steel’s delay in implementing the plan and failure of CoC to exercise its commercial wisdom.
• The court criticised the Resolution Professional (RP) and CoC for failing to protect creditors’ interests and supporting JSW despite violations.
• The (May 2024) order unsettled investors and cast doubts on the effectiveness of IBC reforms.

Importance of BPSL to JSW Steel:

• BPSL contributes significantly to JSW’s revenue and profitability. FY25 performance - Profit of ₹300 crore (Q1), loss of ₹93 crore (Q2), profit of ₹11 crore (Q3).
• BPSL increased capacity from 3.5 MTPA to 5 MTPA, operating advanced facilities across India.
• Analysts estimate an 8–10% revenue and EBITDA decline in FY26 if BPSL is liquidated.

Liquidation Trends and Broader Implications of Judgment:

• Rising liquidations: FY24 witnessed 2,476 cases ending in liquidation with total claims of ₹11 lakh crore. Recovery rate remained only 6.33% of admitted claims (₹69,634 crore).
• Example of Jet Airways: Earlier, Jet Airways faced liquidation due to a failed resolution plan (₹15,723 crore admitted claims).
• Liquidation of BPSL: This would have been the largest in corporate history.
• The judgment: This is expected to restore investor confidence in IBC and discourage frivolous delays.

Conclusion:

• The Supreme Court’s reversal aligns with the spirit of the IBC by prioritising corporate revival over liquidation.
• The ruling will likely strengthen creditors’ trust in resolution plans, reduce litigation uncertainties, and boost investor confidence in India’s insolvency ecosystem.
• Going ahead, stricter accountability for Resolution Professionals and CoCs is essential to prevent delays and safeguard creditors’ interests.

Why in news?

During renewed trade negotiations in New York, Commerce Minister Piyush Goyal highlighted India’s energy security vision, which will involve strong collaboration with the United States, especially in small modular reactor (SMR) technologies and broader nuclear energy cooperation.

However, progress faces hurdles due to unresolved legal issues, particularly India’s nuclear liability framework, which has long discouraged US firms from entering the Indian nuclear market. Addressing these liability concerns is essential but remains a complex challenge, making expansion in nuclear cooperation easier said than done.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• US Regulatory Clearance Boosts Indo-US Nuclear Prospects
• Key Amendments to India’s Nuclear Liability Framework
• Opening India’s Nuclear Sector to Private Participation
• Aligning India’s Nuclear Laws with Global Norms
• Conclusion

US Regulatory Clearance Boosts Indo-US Nuclear Prospects

• In March, the US Department of Energy (DoE) granted Holtec International regulatory clearance under the restrictive 10CFR810 rule, a long-standing hurdle in Indo-US nuclear cooperation.
• The approval conditionally permits Holtec to transfer unclassified small modular reactor (SMR) technology to its subsidiary Holtec Asia, as well as Indian firms Tata Consulting Engineers and Larsen & Toubro.
• Previously, 10CFR810 regulations barred US companies from manufacturing nuclear equipment or conducting nuclear design work in India, blocking New Delhi’s aim to co-produce SMRs for domestic needs.
• The clearance removes this roadblock, paving the way for collaboration.
• Now, the onus shifts to India, which must pass pending legislative amendments — particularly to its liability law and the Atomic Energy Act — to unlock foreign investment.

Key Amendments to India’s Nuclear Liability Framework

• India is working on a set of 11 amendments to its Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act, 2010 (CLNDA) to attract foreign investment and ease vendor concerns.
• Section 17(b) – The Main Obstacle
  • Section 17 of CLNDA allows nuclear plant operators to seek compensation from suppliers after paying damages for an accident.
  • Specifically, Section 17(b) gives operators a “right of recourse” if an incident results from defective or substandard equipment supplied.
    • Foreign vendors like Westinghouse Electric (US) and Framatome (France) argue this provision is stricter than global norms, exposing them to unlimited liability.
    • Since its enactment, no foreign company has invested in India’s nuclear projects, fearing financial risks.
    • Even domestic sub-suppliers like L&T and Walchandnagar Industries are wary, as the term “supplier” is too broad and could include small vendors.
• Proposed Amendments
  • The government is considering:
    • Diluting Section 17(b) to bring it in line with international nuclear liability laws.
    • Clarifying the definition of “supplier” to exclude sub-suppliers from automatic liability.
    • Capping vendor liability, both in monetary terms (limited to contract value) and by time frame, so risks do not extend indefinitely.
• Regulatory Safeguards
  • Officials note that the Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) already vets all projects and can ensure right of recourse is explicitly written into contracts.
  • This safeguard could balance accountability while easing investor fears.

Opening India’s Nuclear Sector to Private Participation

• India is preparing sweeping reforms to allow private and potentially foreign companies to participate in nuclear power generation — a sector long reserved for state-owned operators.
• Amendment to the Atomic Energy Act, 1962
  • The government plans to amend the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, which currently restricts nuclear plant operations to public sector entities like NPCIL and NTPC Ltd.
  • The proposed reform would:
    • Enable private firms to enter nuclear power generation.
    • Allow for minority equity stakes by foreign companies in upcoming nuclear projects at a later stage.
    • Expand the sector’s capacity by leveraging private investment and technology.
• Link to Indo-US Civil Nuclear Deal
  • Nearly two decades after the Indo-US civil nuclear agreement, these reforms are seen as crucial to unlocking its commercial potential.
  • New Delhi also hopes to present this move as part of its broader trade and investment partnership with Washington, complementing ongoing India–US trade negotiations.

Aligning India’s Nuclear Laws with Global Norms

• India is moving to amend its Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act (CLNDA) to align more closely with the 1997 Convention on Supplementary Compensation for Nuclear Damage (CSC).
• These changes are aimed at easing investor concerns, clarifying ambiguities, and bringing India fully into the global nuclear liability regime.
• Compliance with the CSC
  • India signed the CSC in 2010 and ratified it in 2016, despite not being a member of the Vienna (1963) or Paris (1960) Conventions.
  • The proposed amendments to CLNDA will:
    • Harmonise India’s framework with CSC provisions and annexures.
    • Strengthen India’s standing as a CSC-compliant state party, ensuring compatibility with international liability norms.
• Clarification of “Supplier”
  • A major issue has been ambiguity in the definition of “supplier” under Rule 24 of CLND Rules. The rules state a supplier may include:
    • A manufacturer providing systems, equipment, or structures.
    • A vendor responsible for design and quality assurance.
    • Providers of quality assurance or design services.
  • However, uncertainty remains on whether this applies only to reactor suppliers like Westinghouse or also to small vendors, such as an electrical package provider in a Rs 1 crore contract.
  • The amendments seek to clearly define supplier responsibilities, easing fears of unlimited liability for smaller sub-vendors.

Conclusion

• These amendments are an economic necessity to attract foreign and domestic investment into India’s nuclear sector.
• Still, the biggest challenge will be forging political consensus in Parliament to pass the reforms, which may now be delayed beyond the monsoon session.

Why in news?

India’s External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar addressed the 80th session of the UN General Assembly. During this speech, he emphasised that the UN must be reformed and member states — led by active Global South contributors like India — must strengthen cooperation, confront terrorism, and restore multilateral credibility to meet 21st-century challenges.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• UN General Assembly
• The General Debate
• EAM Jaishankar at the UN — Key points & takeaways

UN General Assembly

• The UN General Assembly (UNGA) is the main deliberative, policymaking and representative organ of the United Nations.
• All 193 UN member states are members (each with one vote). The Holy See and Palestine are permanent observers.
• It provides a global forum for multilateral discussion of international issues — peace & security, development, human rights, international law, budgetary and administrative matters.
• Working
  • It holds an annual Regular Session (High-Level Week in September) plus Special and Emergency Special Sessions when required.
  • Structure: Six Main Committees handle substantive work:
    • Disarmament & International Security
    • Economic & Financial
    • Social, Humanitarian & Cultural
    • Special Political & Decolonization
    • Administrative & Budgetary
    • Legal
  • President & Bureau: A President (elected for one year) chairs sessions and sets procedural priorities; elected from different regional groups on rotation.
• Decision-making & voting:
  • Important questions (admission of members, budget, peace & security recommendations) normally require a two-thirds majority.
  • Other questions require a simple majority.
  • Nature of GA decisions: Most resolutions and declarations are non-binding politically influential instruments; binding enforcement is typically the Security Council’s domain.
• Key powers & functions
  • Approve the UN budget and apportion member contributions.
  • Elect non-permanent members of the Security Council, members of other UN bodies and the judges of the ICJ (in conjunction with the Security Council).
  • Recommend appointment of the Secretary-General to the Security Council.
  • Create subsidiary organs and specialised agencies; convene world conferences.
• Key achievements & historical impact
  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): Adopted by UNGA — foundational text in international human rights.
  • Decolonization: Adopted the 1960 Declaration on Granting Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples and guided a major wave of decolonization through UN support and membership expansion.
  • Development agendas: Endorsed the Millennium Declaration (MDGs) and later the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the SDGs (2015) — global compacts for development.

The General Debate

• The general debate is part of the General Assembly session and is held at the beginning of each regular session in September.
• Purpose: Heads of state/government and ministers present national views and priorities and respond to global issues under a chosen theme.
• Speaking order & practice: Traditionally Brazil speaks first, then the United States, followed by other states in order of request and protocol.
• Theme of 80^th session - Better Together: 80 years and more for peace, development and human rights.
• Presidency of 80^th session - Annalena Baerbock of Germany is the President of 80^th UNGA being held in New York.

EAM Jaishankar at the UN — Key points & takeaways

• EAM argued that the UN’s founding Charter calls for peace and human dignity, but the state of the world shows the organisation struggling to deliver.
• He said that the global problems (conflict, climate, development, trade, terrorism) make a compelling case for more international cooperation — and urgent reform of multilateral institutions.
• State of the world — where the UN is falling short
  • Major conflicts: Cited Ukraine and the Middle East as evidence that the UN’s conflict-resolution role is under strain.
  • Development shortfalls: Slow progress on the Sustainable Development Goals; resources and delivery lag.
  • Climate credibility at risk: “If climate action itself is questioned, what hope is there for climate justice?” — concern over hollow commitments and creative accounting.
  • Economic friction: Rising tariff volatility, technology controls, supply-chain grip, and restricted labour mobility undermine open trade and require multilateral responses.
• Terrorism — an urgent, shared threat
  • Terrorism synthesises bigotry, violence, intolerance and fear and remains a priority.
  • India’s experience: living next to a state that is a centre for global terrorism underlines the urgency.
  • Required measures: choke terrorism financing, sanction prominent terrorists, and deepen international cooperation against sponsors and sympathisers.
• UN credibility & the need for reform
  • The UN is “in a state of crisis”: gridlock has reduced its ability to build common ground and weakened belief in multilateralism.
  • Security Council reform is essential — expand both permanent and non-permanent membership to reflect contemporary realities.
• India and the Global South — readiness to lead
  • India stands ready to assume greater responsibilities, and the Global South must contribute more actively.
  • Cited India’s international role: development projects, crisis response, safe commerce, and security assistance.
  • Call for countries that can engage all sides (e.g., in Ukraine and the Middle East) to step up mediation and search for solutions.
• Principles for action — cooperation, empathy, common purpose
  • International cooperation must prevail; islands of prosperity cannot flourish in an ocean of turbulence.
  • A functioning world order requires common purpose and empathy — the UN should be the forum to enable that.
  • Reforming multilateralism is presented as the obvious, necessary path forward.

Why in news?

As the U.S. under President Trump disrupts long-standing global alignments, Europe is presenting itself as a stable and reliable partner for India. This shift is underscored by the upcoming India–EU leaders’ summit scheduled for February 2026, which will build upon European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen’s earlier visit to India.

The EU has also released a strategic agenda outlining its vision for ties with India, anchored on five key pillars and a commitment to mutual benefit.

This framework signals Europe’s intent to position itself as India’s “all-weather” friend and a counterbalance to the uncertainties in U.S. foreign policy.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Five Pillars of the New India–EU Strategic Agenda

Five Pillars of the New India–EU Strategic Agenda

• The India–EU Strategic Agenda is built on five core pillars:
  • Prosperity and Sustainability – covering trade, investment, resilient supply chains, and sustainable development.
  • Technology and Innovation – focusing on critical technologies, digital infrastructure, and joint research.
  • Security and Defence – emphasising new agreements, regional stability, and countering traditional and hybrid threats.
  • Connectivity and Global Issues – strengthening cooperation in third countries and global governance.
  • Enablers Across Pillars – promoting skills mobility, mutual understanding, business linkages, research collaboration, and stronger institutional frameworks for EU–India relations.
• Prosperity and Sustainability: Strengthening India–EU Economic and Trade Ties
  • The EU is India’s largest trading partner, while India is the EU’s biggest partner in the Global South.
  • In 2024, bilateral trade in goods reached €120 billion — a 90% rise over the past decade — with services adding another €60 billion.
  • Nearly 6,000 European companies operate in India, directly employing 3 million people and indirectly supporting millions more.
  • EU foreign direct investment has surged to €140 billion in 2023, nearly doubling in five years.
  • Despite these gains, India accounts for less than 2.5% of the EU’s trade, and Indian investment in the EU stands at only €10 billion.
  • To expand ties, both sides are pushing to finalise a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) by 2025 to cut tariff and non-tariff barriers.
  • They are also negotiating an Investment Protection Agreement, a bilateral macroeconomic dialogue, a Geographical Indications pact, and a comprehensive air transport agreement, all aimed at deepening economic cooperation.
• India–EU Collaboration on Emerging Technologies
  • India and the EU are leveraging complementary strengths to drive innovation.
  • The EU offers world-class research, regulation, and green-digital expertise, while India contributes a skilled workforce, vast datasets, a thriving startup ecosystem, and frugal innovation.
  • Planned initiatives include EU-India Innovation Hubs for key technologies and an EU-India Startup Partnership with the European Innovation Council and Start-up India.
  • Cooperation will focus on AI, particularly large language models, multilingual datasets, and AI applications in healthcare, agriculture, and climate action.
  • Both sides are working on safeguards to prevent unauthorised transfer or misuse of sensitive technologies, aligning with global stability and democratic values.
  • Additionally, the Euratom-India agreement will boost collaboration in peaceful nuclear energy, including reactor safety, waste management, nuclear security, and fusion research.
• India–EU Connectivity and Strategic Corridors
  • The EU’s Global Gateway initiative (€300 billion) and India’s MAHASAGAR programme provide strong platforms for joint connectivity efforts.
  • Their 2021 Connectivity Partnership has laid the foundation for cooperation in energy, transport, and digital infrastructure.
  • A flagship project is the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC), which integrates maritime, rail, digital, energy, and clean hydrogen networks to revive historic Eurasian trade routes.
  • Within this, the EU-Africa-India Digital Corridor is advancing through the 11,700 km Blue Raman submarine cable system, linking Europe and India via the Mediterranean, Middle East, and East Africa.
    • This will ensure ultrafast, secure, and resilient data connectivity.
  • Additionally, India and the EU are developing Green Shipping Corridors to promote sustainable maritime trade and reduce reliance on carbon-intensive transport routes, further boosting commercial and strategic opportunities.
• Deepening India–EU Security and Defence Cooperation
  • India and the EU are strengthening ties through the Strategic Dialogue on Foreign and Security Policy (2025), with thematic discussions on maritime security, cybersecurity, counterterrorism, and non-proliferation.
  • A formal EU-India Security and Defence Partnership is under consideration.
  • Both sides are negotiating a Security of Information Agreement to enable classified information sharing.
  • Cooperation will also expand in the Indo-Pacific, with proposed arrangements between the EU Naval Force and Indian Navy to boost coordination in the western Indian Ocean.
  • Joint efforts include combating terrorism, terror financing, online propaganda, drug trafficking, and risks from emerging technologies.
  • On the industrial front, increased collaboration between Indian and EU defence industries aims to strengthen supply chain security, boost innovation, and expand production capabilities.
  • Plans include establishing an EU-India Defence Industry Forum to connect businesses, share best practices, and explore cooperation opportunities.
• Strengthening India–EU People-to-People Ties
  • India and the EU are deepening social and cultural links.
  • In 2023, 825,000 Indians lived in the EU, forming the largest group receiving Blue Cards and intra-corporate transfer permits.
  • Travel has become easier, with nearly one million Schengen visas issued in 2024, many as multiple-entry.
  • Educational exchanges are expanding through initiatives like the Union of Skills and Erasmus, making Europe more attractive for Indian students amid U.S. restrictions under Trump.

Why in news?

On September 26, the Indian Air Force formally retired its iconic MiG-21 fighter jets, with the last two squadrons — No. 23 (Panthers) and No. 3 (Cobras), operating 36 jets — decommissioned in Chandigarh.

The move marks the end of a Soviet-era legacy but also highlights the IAF’s shrinking squadron strength, underscoring the challenges it faces in modernising its fleet.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• MiG-21: India’s Trusted but Controversial Fighter
• IAF’s Fighter Shortfall and Growing Reliance on Air Defence
• Rebuilding IAF’s Fighter Fleet: Indigenous and Global Plans
• Persistent Delays in Aircraft Induction

MiG-21: India’s Trusted but Controversial Fighter

• Inducted in 1963 as cutting-edge interceptors, MiG-21s became the backbone of the Indian Air Force, fighting in the 1965, 1971, and Kargil wars.
• Over 700 jets of various variants were procured, with the latest Bison upgrades adding advanced avionics, radar, and missiles.
• However, engine flaws plagued the single-engine aircraft, contributing to over 500 crashes and 170 pilot deaths in six decades, including more than 20 since 2010.
• Despite this record, many IAF veterans argue the MiG-21’s performance and longevity make its safety record better than often perceived.

IAF’s Fighter Shortfall and Growing Reliance on Air Defence

• The retirement of the MiG-21s has reduced the Indian Air Force’s strength to 29 fighter squadrons, well below the sanctioned 42 — a target that has never been met.
• This decline poses serious concerns, especially in the event of a simultaneous conflict with Pakistan and China.
• While Pakistan maintains an estimated 20–25 squadrons, China’s strength exceeds 60, giving both adversaries a numerical edge.
  • Each squadron comprises 16–18 jets, making the shortfall significant.
• The challenge will deepen in the coming decade, as several older aircraft — including the MiG-29s, Jaguars, and Mirage 2000s — are slated for phase-out by 2035.
• Unless new fighters are inducted soon, India risks falling further behind its regional rivals in air power.
• Focus on Air Defence
  • Given this reality, military planners are currently focused on bolstering India’s air defence capabilities to offset the shortage of fighters.
  • Advanced systems like the Russian S-400 mobile surface-to-air missile (SAM) systems, despite U.S. opposition, have been inducted into service.
  • Additionally, India’s indigenous Akashteer air-defence system has been deployed.
  • Both systems demonstrated their effectiveness during Operation Sindoor, underscoring their role as critical stopgaps in safeguarding India’s skies until new fighter jets can fill the squadron gap.

Rebuilding IAF’s Fighter Fleet: Indigenous and Global Plans

• To address its shrinking fighter fleet, the IAF is banking heavily on indigenous aircraft.
• Currently operating two squadrons of Tejas Mk1, the IAF is set to induct 180 upgraded Tejas Mk1A jets from HAL.
  • The Mk1A brings advanced features such as AESA radar, an electronic warfare suite with jammers, and enhanced beyond-visual-range (BVR) capabilities through Derby and ASTRA missile integration.
• In addition, HAL is working on Tejas Mk2 and the fifth-generation stealth Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), expected to join the IAF in the next decade.
• Global Fighter Procurement Plans
  • Alongside indigenous projects, the IAF is also pursuing the acquisition of 114 fighters from global manufacturers.
  • The Dassault Rafale is reportedly the frontrunner, with plans to procure some jets in flyaway condition for immediate reinforcement.
  • The majority, however, will likely be manufactured in India under a partnership between Dassault and Indian firms, strengthening the domestic defence ecosystem.
• Su-30MKI Upgrades
  • India also intends to modernise its existing fleet of 84 Su-30MKI aircraft under the “Super-30” program.
  • This upgrade aims to extend their service life and enhance combat effectiveness, ensuring they remain a backbone of the IAF until newer platforms are fully inducted.

Persistent Delays in Aircraft Induction

• The Indian Air Force continues to grapple with delays in aircraft development and delivery, forcing the MiG-21 to remain operational well beyond its planned phase-out due to the lack of replacements.
• The LCA and Tejas Mk1A Delays
  • The LCA program, conceived in the 1980s, has seen repeated setbacks.
  • Out of 40 Tejas Mk1 jets ordered in 2006 and 2010, only 38 have been delivered so far.
  • The Tejas Mk1A, expected earlier, will see its first two deliveries in October after a two-year delay caused by late procurement of F404 engines from GE Aerospace and issues in weapons and radar integration.
  • HAL now plans to manufacture 16 aircraft annually, but even then, deliveries may extend into the mid-2030s, beyond the original 2030 target.
• Engine and Technology Transfer Challenges
  • Negotiations between HAL and GE over co-production of F414 engines for the Tejas Mk2 remain slow, despite a deal signed two years ago that promised 80% technology transfer. This delay hampers progress on the Mk2 program.
• AMCA and Foreign Fighter Procurement Uncertainty
  • The AMCA, India’s ambitious fifth-generation fighter project, is still in its development phase, with even a prototype several years away.
  • At the same time, the deal to acquire 114 foreign fighters remains unsigned, further delaying critical reinforcements to the IAF’s dwindling squadrons.

Why in the News?

• The Jharkhand archery team has been named “Chero Archers” in the inaugural Archery Premier League (APL), paying tribute to the legendary Chero warrior clan known for their defiance against the Mughals and British.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Chero Clan (Introduction, Historical Overview, Archery in Jharkhand, etc.)
• News Summary

About Chero Warrior Clan: A Historical Overview

• The Cheros were a warrior community that rose to prominence in the medieval period.
• Predominantly found in Palamu (Jharkhand), Shahabad (Bihar), and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh, they were known for their courage, skill with bows and arrows, and their ability to defend their territories against external forces.
• Resistance against the Mughals
  • During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Cheros fiercely resisted Mughal expansion in eastern India.
  • Palamu, under the rule of Chero King Medini Rai, became a symbol of defiance. Medini Rai fortified the Palamu forts and challenged Mughal armies led by generals under Emperor Aurangzeb.
  • Although the forts were eventually captured, the Cheros’ resistance highlighted their martial spirit and determination to remain independent.
• Defiance against British Colonial Rule
  • The Cheros were equally hostile toward British colonial expansion.
  • In the late 18^th and early 19^th centuries, they joined forces with other tribal communities like the Santhals, Mundas, and Oraons in rebellions against British land revenue policies and forest exploitation.
  • Their familiarity with the rugged terrain of Jharkhand and mastery of archery made them formidable guerrilla fighters.
• Symbol of Tribal Identity
  • Over time, the Cheros came to represent resistance, valour, and identity for Jharkhand’s tribal population.
  • Their martial traditions have been celebrated in folklore, songs, and oral histories passed down through generations.

Archery in Jharkhand: A Natural Legacy

• Archery has always been more than a sport for Jharkhand’s tribal communities. It has been a way of life, a survival skill, and a cultural practice.

• Traditional Significance: For centuries, bows and arrows were used for hunting and self-defence in the forests of Jharkhand.
• Sporting Excellence: Jharkhand has produced some of India’s finest archers, including Deepika Kumari and Komalika Bari, who rose from humble tribal backgrounds to international fame.
• Grassroots Training: Many villages in Jharkhand continue to train young children in archery using bamboo bows, symbolising both tradition and aspiration.
• By naming its team the Chero Archers, Jharkhand has merged this ancient martial practice with modern sporting aspirations, ensuring that the legacy of the warrior clan finds renewed relevance in today’s context.

News Summary

• The Archery Premier League (APL) is India’s newest sporting initiative, modelled on the franchise system that has boosted cricket and kabaddi.
• Jharkhand’s franchise, named Chero Archers, is not only a nod to the State’s dominance in archery but also a deliberate cultural assertion.

• Tribute to Warrior Heritage: The team’s name commemorates the Chero warrior clan, whose martial legacy continues to inspire pride in the region.
• Promoting Cultural Identity: By associating the team with the Cheros, Jharkhand is strengthening its tribal narrative in a national sporting arena.
• Boost to Sports Tourism: The APL is expected to attract attention to Jharkhand’s rich history and its tradition of producing world-class archers.
• Empowering Youth: The initiative provides an opportunity for tribal youth to connect with their heritage while pursuing sporting excellence at the professional level.

• This symbolic gesture resonates deeply with Jharkhand’s population, where history and modernity are often woven together in narratives of struggle and achievement.

Significance of the Move

• Cultural Revival: The move ensures that the memory of Chero warriors is not confined to history books but celebrated in a contemporary context.
• Sports and Identity: It bridges the gap between traditional tribal identity and modern sports culture, making archery both a cultural and professional aspiration.
• Inspirational Symbol: For the younger generation, the “Chero Archers” brand serves as a reminder of resilience, courage, and excellence.
• National Spotlight: By honouring its indigenous warrior clan, Jharkhand has set a precedent for other States to celebrate local heroes in national sports events.

Context:

• China’s announcement at the UN General Assembly that it will no longer seek Special and Differential Treatment (SDT) in future WTO negotiations marks a significant shift in global trade dynamics.
• This decision comes amid US tariff pressures and criticisms of SDT exploitation.
• The development has direct implications for India, which continues to rely heavily on SDT flexibilities to safeguard its agricultural and social welfare priorities.

SDT and China’s Tactical Retreat:

• What is SDT?
  • SDT refers to provisions within World Trade Organisation (WTO) agreements that grant developing countries and Least-Developed Countries (LDCs) special rights and more favorable treatment.
  • These include longer implementation periods, preferential access to markets, and support for capacity building to help them participate in global trade and economic development.
  • The aim is to recognise the differing economic capacities between developed and developing nations and create a more equitable trading system.
• China’s retreat:
  • China’s decision, while preserving its self-declared developing country status and all existing perks (such as lenient subsidy caps), is a tactical retreat amid long-standing US objections to the practice.
  • While the WTO lauded it as a breakthrough for reform, sceptics see it as symbolic window-dressing, allowing China to deflect criticism without dismantling its agricultural and industrial advantages.

Implications for India:

• Rising external pressure:
  • President Donald Trump has announced a fresh salvo of 100% tariffs on branded and patented pharmaceutical products and also announced broader tariffs on furniture, kitchen cabinets, and trucks.
  • Growing calls for India to shed its developing country status as its economy expands.
• India’s dependence on SDT:
  • SDT, which is rooted in the GATT legacy, offers flexibilities such as higher tariffs and longer compliance periods.
  • These concessions are crucial for protecting vulnerable populations in a country where per capita income ranks 136th globally.

Agriculture at the Core of the Debate:

• Agriculture employs around half of India’s workforce and underpins the food security of 1.4 billion people.
• Under the WTO’s Agreement on Agriculture (AoA), the trade-distorting Amber Box caps subsidies at 10% of production value for developing countries (versus 5% for developed ones).
• India leverages Article 6.2 exemptions for input subsidies to low-income farmers, channeling over $40 billion annually through mechanisms like Minimum Support Prices (MSP) for staples such as rice and wheat.
• These support the Public Distribution System (PDS), distributing subsidised grains to 800 million beneficiaries.

Hypocrisy of Developed Nations:

• The 1986-88 reference prices: Inflate India’s reported Aggregate Measurement of Support (AMS), often exceeding the 10% threshold — drawing fire from the US and the Cairns Group for alleged market distortion.
• Double standards of developed nations: They provided $850 billion in global farm subsidies in 2023 (as per OECD estimates), protecting their own programmes through Green Box loopholes for research and environmental aid.

Risks of Forced Graduation from SDT:

• Phased AMS reductions could slash subsidies by 20-30% over a decade, leading to a 10-15% drop in rural incomes and heightened food price volatility.
• Malnutrition, affecting 35% of children under five, might worsen, undermining the National Food Security Act.
• Recent WTO disputes, like the 2023 sugar subsidy panel, underscore these vulnerabilities.

Strategic Options for India:

• Agriculture:
  • India should strive to lead the G33 coalition to extend the 2013 Bali Ministerial’s interim “peace clause” on public stockholding beyond 2023, shielding MSP and PDS from WTO disputes until 2030.
  • Transition input subsidies to Green Box measures (research, climate-resilient crops).
  • It can also advocate for updating AoA reference prices to reflect current market realities.
• E-Commerce:
  • India should join plurilateral e-commerce talks, offering commitments on consumer protection and cross-border data flows in exchange for tariff-free access to developed markets.
  • Expand the Open Network for Digital Commerce (ONDC) to empower MSMEs in global e-commerce, and reduce reliance on SDT tariff protections.
  • India should propose tiered data regulations in WTO talks, allowing developing nations longer transition periods to comply with global standards, preserving India’s Personal Data Protection Act.
• Selective SDT phase-out:
  • Reduce protections in non-core sectors for better market access.
  • Retain exemptions for agriculture and vulnerable sectors.
  • Use Green Box funds for cold storage and processing to boost exports.
• Intellectual property:
  • India must maintain compulsory licensing and patent opposition provisions under TRIPS Article 31, citing public health needs for 1.4 billion people (as affirmed in the Doha Declaration, 2001).
  • India should offer phased alignment with stricter IP rules in non-critical sectors to secure concessions in other areas of strength.
  • India should increase Green Box-style funding for biotech innovation, reducing dependence on generic exports while preserving access for low-income populations.
• Reforming SDT framework: India should propose a tiered SDT framework based on per capita GDP or sectoral competitiveness, allowing India to retain agricultural protections.

Conclusion:

• India faces mounting pressure to reduce dependence on SDT, but its demographic, agrarian, and developmental constraints make abrupt withdrawal risky.
• India’s services dominance (55% of GDP) offers leverage, and reforms like DBT (covering 90% of fertiliser subsidies) can also help.
• A calibrated strategy can safeguard food security while boosting global competitiveness.
• Rather than resisting inevitable change, India must proactively shape WTO reforms, positioning itself as a middle power that bridges growth and equity in global trade governance.

Context

• The leadership of Prime Minister Narendra Modi has often been praised for its charisma and organizational skill.
• Yet, beneath the spectacle lies a deeper, less acknowledged trait, an ethic of discipline, preparation, and systemic thinking.
• This professionalism, developed through decades of public service as Chief Minister of Gujarat and later as Prime Minister of India, forms the foundation of his governance style.
• Modi’s approach, as seen through policy choices and personal habits, highlights a distinctive emphasis on action, inclusion, and institution-building, rather than mere rhetoric.

PM Modi’s Approach Towards Governance

• Vision Anchored in Duty
  • What sets Modi apart is not simply his ability to capture public imagination but his consistent transformation of vision into functioning systems.
  • His work ethic is evident in his rigorous preparation, as illustrated by personal anecdotes of meetings where hours of study precede discussions.
  • This discipline reflects a larger philosophy: governance should not rest on symbolic gestures but on outcomes that make a tangible difference to citizens.
  • This ethic framed his Independence Day address, which went beyond celebration to outline a charter for shared work.
  • Citizens, scientists, states, and start-ups were invited to participate in the project of Viksit Bharat (a developed India).
  • The speech emphasised practical ambitions, in deep technology, clean energy, and resilient supply chains, with Jan Bhagidari (people’s participation) as the method.
• Policy as a Living Instrument
  • A central feature of Modi’s governance has been treating policy as adaptive and responsive rather than static.
  • The simplification of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) illustrates this method. By reducing tax slabs and minimizing friction points, the reform lowered compliance burdens on small businesses and ensured quicker benefits to consumers.
  • The focus was not on abstract fiscal calculations but on the experience of everyday citizens and traders.
  • This adaptability also reflects cooperative federalism, the ongoing dialogue between the Centre and states within the GST Council.
  • Rather than preserving rigid uniformity, policy here becomes a living instrument, tuned to the rhythm of the economy.
  • It is governance designed for responsiveness rather than permanence on paper.
• Citizen-Centric Systems
  • Perhaps the most transformative legacy of recent years lies in the creation of systems that empower citizens at scale.
  • The triad of digital identity (Aadhaar), universal bank accounts, and real-time payments has redefined inclusion by embedding it into infrastructure.
  • Benefits now reach verified citizens directly, reducing leakages and ensuring predictability for small businesses.
  • Data, not anecdotes, shapes policy design. The principle of Antyodaya, uplifting the last citizen, is not just a rhetorical flourish but a litmus test for every programme reaching the Prime Minister’s Office.
  • A striking example of this citizen focus was seen during the launch of India’s first bamboo-based 2G ethanol plant in Assam.

Some Other PM Modi’s Commendable Governance Approach

• Clarity in Economic and Strategic Statecraft
  • This clarity extends beyond domestic policy to India’s external engagements.
  • In energy, India has pursued a diversified supplier basket, ensuring affordability and stability during global volatility.
  • Negotiations abroad were guided by a simple but powerful brief: secure supplies, protect consumers, and prioritise national interest.
  • National security has been approached in the same manner, without unnecessary drama but with resolve and restraint.
  • Operations are defined by clear objectives, operational freedom for security forces, and protection of civilians.
  • Once again, the ethic is evident: outcomes matter more than posturing.
• A Distinctive Work Culture
  • Behind these decisions lies a distinctive working style. Modi cultivates an environment where discussions are rigorous but respectful, where the best argument, not the loudest, prevails.
  • Preparation is rewarded, responsibility is clearly assigned, and follow-up is relentless. In this culture, drift is not tolerated, and performance is measured against defined metrics.
  • This ethos points to a broader philosophy of institution-building.
  • Modi’s birthday coincides with Vishwakarma Jayanti, a symbolic reminder that lasting monuments in public life are not statues or spectacles but institutions, platforms, and standards that endure.
  • For citizens, this translates into services delivered efficiently and affordably. For businesses, it means clarity of policy and predictability.
  • For the state, it means systems that withstand stress and evolve over time.

Conclusion

• PM Modi’s leadership is defined by an ethic of hard work, attention to detail, and a citizen-first orientation.
• By embedding inclusion into infrastructure, treating policy as adaptive, and developing a culture of rigorous preparation, Modi has sought to build durable institutions rather than transient symbols.
• In doing so, he is shaping not just the current political moment but potentially the next chapter of India’s developmental story.

Context

• The political turmoil in Nepal following the Gen Z protests of September 2025 marks a significant turning point in South Asia’s democratic landscape.
• Unlike previous uprisings in Nepal that were largely steered by political parties, this movement was spearheaded by the younger generation, frustrated with systemic corruption, elite domination, and lack of economic opportunities.
• The resignation of Prime Minister K.P. Sharma Oli, the swearing-in of former Chief Justice Sushila Karki as interim Prime Minister, and the dissolution of parliament reflect both the fragility and resilience of Nepal’s democratic framework.
• Placed against the backdrop of wider regional unrest across South Asia in the 2020s, Nepal’s transition underscores broader themes of generational change, institutional weakness, and the struggle for political legitimacy.

Regional Context of Turbulence

• The upheavals in Nepal cannot be examined in isolation and the wider South Asian region has experienced a wave of political instability throughout the decade.
• Myanmar reverted to military rule in 2021; Afghanistan fell to the Taliban the same year; Sri Lanka’s Aragalaya protests of 2022 toppled President Gotabaya Rajapaksa.
• Also, Pakistan witnessed widespread protests in 2023 following the arrest of Imran Khan; and Bangladesh’s Sheikh Hasina resigned under pressure in 2024.
• Although these events share common threads, particularly the role of disillusioned youth and high youth unemployment, each country’s crisis stems from its unique political trajectory.
• Myanmar and Pakistan remain dominated by their militaries, Afghanistan continues its cycle of failed foreign interventions, while Sri Lanka and Bangladesh suffered from entrenched dynastic rule.
• In all cases, however, young populations have emerged as catalysts of change, challenging authoritarianism, corruption, and political inertia.

Nepal’s Distinctive Path

• Nepal’s political journey diverges from its neighbours in significant ways.
• Since the 1990 Jan Aandolan, which curtailed monarchical powers and introduced multi-party democracy, Nepal has seen frequent government changes, seven since the adoption of the 2015 constitution alone.
• This apparent instability masked deeper continuity: the same handful of leaders, from Oli to Prachanda to Sher Bahadur Deuba, repeatedly rotated in office, entrenching corruption and stalling economic growth.
• The Maoist insurgency (1996–2006) and subsequent peace process transformed Nepal into a republic in 2008, but the promise of stable, inclusive governance has not been realised.
• Instead, the 2025 protests reflect a rejection not just of a government, but of an entire political class perceived as self-serving and unaccountable.

The Interim Government and its Challenges

• The intervention of the army in facilitating talks and ensuring security, along with President Ramchandra Paudel’s reliance on military mediation, underscores the fragility of civilian political authority in Nepal.
• The appointment of Sushila Karki as interim Prime Minister marks a cautious step towards restoring stability.
• Her three stated priorities, ensuring elections on March 5, 2026; investigating police excesses and protest violence; and tackling high-level corruption, are ambitious yet fraught with difficulty.
• Nepal’s judicial system lacks mechanisms for fast-track prosecutions, and political gangs infiltrating the protests complicate accountability.
• More significantly, calls for constitutional amendments risk destabilising the fragile consensus built since 2006.
• Proposals to abolish federalism or alter proportional representation would alienate marginalised groups such as the Madhesis, Janjatis, and Tharus, potentially reigniting ethnic tensions.

Youth, Democracy, and the Question of Legitimacy

• At the heart of Nepal’s crisis lies a generational divide. Youth unemployment, exceeding 20%, fuels resentment against a political elite seen as benefiting from cronyism while ignoring structural reforms.
• The Gen Z protests highlight a hunger for new political platforms, but the challenge remains whether these movements can institutionalise themselves into coherent parties capable of governing.
• The upcoming elections provide both opportunity and risk. Established parties require time to undergo internal renewal, which veteran leaders may resist.
• At the same time, new youth-led forces may struggle with organisation, while pro-monarchy factions could attempt to exploit disillusionment.
• Thus, the March 2026 elections will be a critical test of whether Nepal can transition from protest-driven change to durable democratic renewal.

India’s Role and Regional Implications

• India, often accused of meddling in Nepal’s affairs, has so far responded with restraint.
• Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s congratulatory call to Sushila Karki signalled goodwill without overt interference.
• Given the turbulence across South Asia, stability in Nepal is in India’s interest.
• A fair and peaceful electoral process would serve as a counter-example to the democratic backsliding seen in neighbouring states.

Conclusion

• Nepal’s current phase of political transition encapsulates both the promise and peril of generational change in South Asia.
• While the Gen Z protests have succeeded in breaking the monopoly of entrenched elites, the task ahead lies in converting popular anger into institutional reform without destabilising the fragile democratic consensus.
• The March 2026 elections will be decisive: if conducted fairly, they could herald a new era of accountable governance; if undermined by opportunism or constitutional adventurism, they risk plunging Nepal back into cycles of instability.

Why in news?

The Registrar General of India has proposed retaining the 2011 Census definition of urban areas for Census 2027, ensuring comparability and consistency in analysing urbanisation trends.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Criteria for Urban Classification
• Global Comparisons
• Limitations of Current Urban Definition
• Implications of Outdated Urban Definition

Criteria for Urban Classification

• In 2011, an urban unit was defined as either:
  • Statutory Towns – formally notified by State governments with urban local bodies such as municipal corporations, municipal councils, or nagar panchayats.
  • Census Towns – settlements meeting three conditions:
    • Population of at least 5,000
    • At least 75% of the male main working population engaged in non-agricultural activities
    • Population density of at least 400 persons per sq. km
• By these criteria, only 31.2% of India is considered urban, though the actual extent is believed to be much higher.
• Though census towns are administratively rural, they function like urban areas, creating a gap between governance and ground realities.

Global Comparisons

• Unlike India’s strict three-criteria approach, most countries rely on one or two measures such as demographics, density, or infrastructure.
• The World Bank’s Agglomeration Index estimated that 55.3% of India’s population lived in urban-like areas in 2010, showing “hidden urbanisation” outside statutory limits.
• DEGURBA: A Global Framework
  • To harmonise global urban definitions, six international organisations developed the Degree of Urbanisation (DEGURBA) method, endorsed by the UN in 2020.
    • It uses satellite imagery and population grids of 1 km².
    • Settlements are classified into seven sub-categories: urban centres, dense/semi-dense clusters, peri-urban, and various rural categories.
  • This approach captures the real spatial extent of urbanisation beyond administrative boundaries.
  • DEGURBA helps detect settlement patterns, improve service monitoring, and guide financial targeting.
  • However, its low-density thresholds may misclassify croplands or peri-urban fringes as urban.
  • As it relies on algorithms and satellite data, risks of under- or over-detection remain.

Limitations of Current Urban Definition

• India’s binary definition of urban and rural fails to capture the complex realities of evolving settlements.
• While urban local bodies enjoy autonomy and better governance, Panchayati Raj institutions are limited, leaving many fast-urbanising areas under inadequate rural administration.
• Villages transforming into towns often remain unrecognised, despite dense populations, non-agricultural livelihoods, and urban lifestyles.
• As a result, census towns and peri-urban regions are excluded from proper governance and infrastructure, creating gaps in planning and services.
• For example, Census data show that 251 towns identified as urban in 2001 continued to be governed as rural areas even in 2011.
• West Bengal, with the highest rise in census towns, illustrates this mismatch, as many newly classified urban settlements were never converted into statutory towns with elected bodies, leaving them underprepared for infrastructure and planning needs.

Implications of Outdated Urban Definition

• As India prepares for Census 2027, retaining the old definition of “urban” risks undercounting millions and excluding rapidly growing settlements from governance and services.
• Studies show India’s true urban population in 2011 may have been 35–57%, much higher than the official 31%.
• The rigid rules — such as the 75% male workforce engaged in non-agricultural jobs — are outdated, ignoring women’s informal work and the rise of industries, service jobs, and gig economy employment in semi-urban and rural areas.
• Many settlements that function as urban clusters remain unrecognised because they fall outside municipal boundaries or are divided administratively.
• Seasonal workers who straddle agriculture and urban jobs also fall through the cracks.
• Thus, continuing with the narrow, binary definition will misclassify urbanisation trends, leaving infrastructure, planning, and services ill-suited to India’s evolving settlement

Why in news?

The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully test-fired the Agni-Prime (Agni-P) missile from a rail-based mobile launcher.

This launch has placed India among a select group of nations — Russia, the US, China, and possibly North Korea — with the capability to launch long-range ballistic missiles from railway platforms using canisterised launch systems.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Agni Series of Missiles
• Agni-P: The Next-Generation Upgrade to Agni-I
• Mobile Launch Platforms and India’s Second-Strike Capability
• Advantages of Rail-Based Missile Launchers
• Countries with Rail-Based Missile Technology

Agni Series of Missiles

• The Agni series is India’s family of nuclear-capable ballistic missiles, developed under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) by the DRDO.
• They are a key element of India’s strategic deterrence capability.
• Agni-I (1989): A medium-range ballistic missile (MRBM) with a range of 700–1,000 km. It was India’s first in the series and is road- and rail-mobile.
• Agni-II (1999): A two-stage solid-fuel missile with a range of 2,000–3,000 km, capable of carrying nuclear warheads.
• Agni-III (2006): An intermediate-range ballistic missile (IRBM) with a range of 3,500–5,000 km, providing wider regional coverage.
• Agni-IV (2011): Improved navigation and accuracy, range of 3,500–4,000 km, lighter and more advanced than Agni-III.
• Agni-V (2012): An intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) with a range of 5,000–8,000 km, extending India’s deterrence to cover much of Asia and parts of Europe and Africa.
• Agni-P (Agni-Prime, 2021): A next-generation variant with a range of 1,000–2,000 km, combining advanced technologies from Agni-IV and V, lighter, more accurate, and canisterised.
• Agni-VI (under development): Expected range of 8,000–10,000 km, with potential multiple independently targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV) capability.

Agni-P: The Next-Generation Upgrade to Agni-I

• India’s Agni missile series, developed since the late 1980s, began with the Agni-I medium range ballistic missile (700–1,000 km range) tested in 1989.
• While Agni-I remains in service, defence planners sought upgrades, leading to the development of Agni-P (Agni-Prime).
• Agni-P combines Agni-I’s range with advanced propulsion and navigation technologies from Agni-IV and Agni-V.
  • It is the sixth missile in the Agni series.
• Weighing 11,000 kg, it is a two-stage, solid-fuel missile with an operational range of 1,000–2,000 km, capable of carrying high explosive, thermobaric, or nuclear warheads.
• A nuclear-capable version tested in 2021 drew praise from the then Defence Minister, who said it would further bolster India’s Credible Deterrence capabilities.

Mobile Launch Platforms and India’s Second-Strike Capability

• Mobile launch systems are vital to a nation’s second-strike capability, enabling it to retaliate after a nuclear attack.
• For India, which follows a “no first use” nuclear doctrine, such survivability is critical.
• Advances in satellite imagery, missile accuracy, and sensing technologies have made stationary silos increasingly vulnerable.
• As noted by defence experts, silos face heightened risks from both conventional and nuclear strikes.
• To counter this, militaries rely on mobile launch platforms — submarines, aircraft, and road or rail-based launchers — which are harder to detect and more resilient in an all-out conflict.

Advantages of Rail-Based Missile Launchers

• Rail-based missile platforms offer distinct advantages over road or sea systems.
• While road-based launchers are constrained by road width and quality, India’s 70,000-km railway network enables nationwide mobility without major preparation.
• The numerous railway tunnels provide natural hiding spots, allowing launchers to evade enemy satellite surveillance and remain concealed until deployment.
• Compared to submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), rail-based platforms are also cheaper to build and maintain, making them a more efficient and scalable option for strengthening strategic deterrence.

Countries with Rail-Based Missile Technology

• India’s recent test places it among a select group of nations with rail-based missile launch capability.
• The idea dates back to the Cold War, when both the US and USSR explored rail-mobile ICBMs.
• The US studied rail launchers for its Minuteman ICBMs in the 1950s and again planned Peacekeeper deployment in the 1980s, but abandoned both due to cost and the Soviet collapse.
• The Soviet Union successfully deployed the RT-23 Molodets rail-based ICBM system, later dismantled under the START Treaty.
  • Russia later considered reviving the concept with the Barguzin system but shelved it in favour of hypersonic missile development.
• In 2016, China reportedly tested a rail-mobile version of its DF-41 ICBM.
• North Korea has also tested rail-based short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs), demonstrating their mobility and survivability.
• Experts note that rail-based missiles are a cheap, reliable option for enhancing nuclear force survivability, with Russia pioneering it, the US considering it, and North Korea actively pursuing it.

Why in the News?

• The government’s proposal to regulate air conditioner efficiency has reignited debate on the Right to Cooling as a public health and climate justice imperative in India and the Global South.

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Access to Cooling (Introduction, India & Global South, Health Implications, Policy Interventions, Climate Justice, etc.)

Introduction

• The intensifying heatwaves across the Global South, including India, have turned cooling into an essential public health safeguard rather than a luxury.
• In June 2025, the Government of India proposed regulations requiring all new air conditioners to function within a temperature range of 20°C to 28°C, with 24°C as the default setting.
• While the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) projects that such a move could save 20 billion units of electricity annually and cut emissions by 16 million tonnes, the debate extends far beyond efficiency.
• It raises urgent questions of equity, climate justice, and the universal right to cooling.

Access to Cooling in India and the Global South

• Cooling access in India remains severely inadequate. In 2021, only 13% of urban households and 1% of rural households owned air conditioners, with overall national penetration at around 5%.
• The disparity is stark: Delhi reports 32% household ownership, while low-income states such as Bihar and Odisha report just 1%, despite recording extreme heat conditions.
• Globally, the contrast is sharper. Nearly 90% of households in the U.S. and Japan own an air conditioner, compared to 22% in Latin America and just 6% in Sub-Saharan Africa.
• Per capita electricity consumption for cooling in the U.S. is 28 times higher than in India.
• Despite these inequities, the discourse on cooling in the South is often framed as a climate burden, while in the North it is justified as a health necessity.

Health and Productivity Implications

• Extreme heat is no longer just a climate phenomenon but a direct public health hazard.
• According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), heat exposure caused 489,000 global deaths between 2000 and 2019, with India recording over 20,000.
• The lack of reliable electricity, inadequate thermally secure housing, and under-equipped public health infrastructure amplify vulnerabilities.
• The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimates that over 70% of the global workforce was exposed to excessive heat in 2020, causing 23 million occupational injuries and nearly 19,000 deaths.
• In India, where 80% of workers are in agriculture, construction, or street vending, the absence of heat-resilient workspaces threatens both health and livelihoods.

Policy Interventions and Heat Action Plans

• Several Indian states and cities have initiated heat action plans, including early warning systems, public shelters, and awareness drives.
• However, weak institutional capacity, limited funding, and poor legal backing have restricted their effectiveness. Millions remain vulnerable to heat-related illnesses, productivity losses, and income insecurity.
• The government’s regulatory approach to air conditioner efficiency is commendable for energy savings, but risks being symbolic if not paired with stronger investments in affordable cooling access for the vulnerable.

Climate Justice and the Right to Cooling

• Developed countries historically invested heavily in heating systems, often backed by subsidies and unchecked emissions.
• Today, developing nations like India face a similar need for cooling but with fewer resources and under mounting international pressure to decarbonise.
• Global emissions from cooling stand at one billion tonnes annually, far lower than heating-related emissions, yet the cooling demand is projected to triple by 2050, with India’s share growing eightfold.
• For the Global South, the challenge is twofold: achieving efficient cooling while ensuring universal access.
• Thus, cooling must be recognised not merely as a mitigation liability but as a development right tied to health, equity, and livelihood security.
• Bridging the gap requires financial and technological support from developed nations, large-scale public investment, and integration of cooling into climate adaptation strategies.

Why in News?

• The Karnataka High Court rejected social media platform X’s plea against the Central Government’s Sahyog Portal - a digital mechanism to issue content takedown notices.
• The Court upheld the State’s right to regulate social media, calling Sahyog an “instrument of public good” and a “beacon of cooperation” between citizens, state, and platforms.
• The Court stressed that social media platforms cannot operate in a state of “anarchic freedom.”

What’s in Today’s Article?

• Sahyog Portal - A Public Good
• X Corporation’s Challenge
• Government’s Defence
• High Court’s Ruling
• Key Legal Issues Touched upon by the HC
• Implication of the HC Ruling
• Conclusion

Sahyog Portal - A Public Good:

• Launched: October 2024 by the Union Home Ministry, and maintained by the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C).
• Purpose: A centralised channel (which connects central agencies, state police, and online intermediaries to combat cybercrime) for issuing takedown notices to intermediaries.
• Legal basis: Section 79(3)(b), IT Act, 2000 – intermediaries lose “safe harbour protection” if they fail to act upon government notices of unlawful content.
• Operational data:
  • 65 intermediaries and nodal officers onboarded by April 2025.
  • 130 takedown notices issued (Oct 2024 – Apr 2025) to platforms including Google, YouTube, Amazon, Microsoft.

X Corporation’s Challenge:

• Claim: Sahyog is a “censorship portal” creating a parallel, extra-legal content blocking regime.
• Arguments:
  • Section 79(3)(b) notices bypass stricter procedural safeguards under Section 69A IT Act. Unlike Section 69A, notices under Section 79(3)(b) lack transparency, hearing, and written reasoning.
  • Violates Shreya Singhal (2015) judgment, in which the apex court had specified that a takedown order under Section 79(3)(b) -
    • Could only be issued pursuant to a court order or a government notification and
    • Must relate to grounds similar to those in Section 69A.
  • State governments and police issuing notices via Sahyog expands censorship
• Support: Supporting X’s challenge, Digipub (collective of 92 digital publishers) argued that blocking orders through Sahyog threatens media freedom.

Government’s Defence:

• Necessity: Social media requires stricter regulation due to algorithmic amplification and rapid spread of harmful content.
• ‘Safe harbour’ is not absolute: It is a statutory privilege conditional upon due diligence.
• Separation of powers: Section 79(3)(b) and Section 69A operate independently.
  • Section 79(3)(b): Failure to comply results in loss of safe harbour.
  • Section 69A: Blocking power on grounds of sovereignty, security, public order.
• Efficiency: Sahyog is an efficient, transparent mechanism to expedite unlawful content removal.
• X Corp - a foreign entity: Hence, it cannot invoke Article 19 rights (available only to Indian citizens).

High Court’s Ruling:

• The judgment outlined three red lines for social media companies -
  • Social media cannot remain unregulated.
  • Companies must comply with the laws of the land.
  • Past precedents like Shreya Singhal (2015) cannot be used to interpret new regulatory frameworks under IT Rules 2021.

Key Legal Issues Touched upon by the HC:

• Need for regulation:
  • The spread of information has always been regulated across civilizations.
  • Social media as a “modern amphitheater of ideas” cannot exist in anarchic freedom.
  • Regulation is essential, especially for offences against women to safeguard the constitutional right to dignity.
  • Regulation of social media is not unique to India, it is a global practice.
• Law of the Land - India is not a playground:
  • Platforms cannot operate in India while ignoring its statutory framework.
  • Liberty is tied to responsibility and accountability.
  • X complies with the Take It Down Act in the US but refuses to follow similar takedown orders in India.
  • American legal principles cannot be transplanted into the Indian constitutional framework.
• Shreya Singhal not applicable - New law, new interpretation:
  • X argued that the 2015 Shreya Singhal judgment allowed censorship only via courts or under Section 69A, IT Act.
  • Court held -
    • Shreya Singhal judgment applied to the 2011 IT Rules (now obsolete).
    • The 2021 IT Rules are distinct, requiring a new interpretative lens.
    • Precedents cannot bind evolving regulatory regimes.
• Extent of Article 19 of the Indian Constitution: It applies only to Indian citizens; X, as a foreign corporation, cannot claim these protections.

Implications of the HC Ruling:

• For intermediaries: Non-compliance with Sahyog notices may result in the loss of safe harbour protection - establishing legal liability.
• Digital governance: Shows India’s move towards platform accountability.
• Cybersecurity: Strengthens mechanisms against cybercrime, misinformation, and online harms.
• Law and constitution: Reasserts sovereign right to regulate speech, balancing Article 19(1)(a) – freedom of Speech with reasonable restrictions.
• Policy relevance: Demonstrates how courts interpret technological evolution in line with national context.

Conclusion:

The ruling reaffirms India’s sovereign regulatory authority over digital platforms, emphasizes the balance between free speech and accountability, and calls for continuous legal adaptation in line with technological advancements.

Context

• The recent announcement of a Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement between Pakistan and Saudi Arabia has sent ripples across the subcontinent, particularly in India.
• At the core of the agreement lies a clause that treats aggression against one party as an attack on both, a formulation that echoes collective defence commitments.
• While such rhetoric has historical precedent in bilateral pacts, the timing, context, and wider geopolitical realignments have lent this deal far greater significance than a routine defence partnership.
• For India, which has invested heavily in deepening its engagement with West Asia over the past decade, the development underscores both the fragility of its strategic balancing act and the risks of complacency in an era of shifting alliances.

India’s Diplomatic Setback Post-Pahalgam Attack

• The agreement comes in the wake of the April 2025 terror attack in Pahalgam, Jammu and Kashmir, which triggered the most intense military confrontation between India and Pakistan since the 1971 war.
• New Delhi responded with a concerted diplomatic campaign to isolate Pakistan internationally, alongside the launch of Operation Sindoor, aimed at striking terrorist camps within Pakistani territory.
• Yet, these efforts have yielded mixed results. While India received sympathy and support from some partners, its attempt to impose a diplomatic quarantine on Islamabad faltered.
• The Saudi-Pakistan pact, emerging amidst these tensions, represents a symbolic diplomatic victory for Islamabad and a clear rebuke of India’s efforts to delegitimise its neighbour on the world stage.

Riyadh’s Balancing Act and Historical Context

• The move is not unprecedented and Saudi Arabia has long relied on Pakistan’s military as a source of strategic depth, given Islamabad’s extensive combat experience, largely against India, and its possession of nuclear weapons.
• The relationship, however, has not always been smooth. In 2015, Pakistan refused Riyadh’s request to contribute troops to its Yemen campaign, straining ties significantly.
• Today, with Washington perceived as a less reliable security partner and with regional tensions heightened by conflicts such as the Israel-Hamas war of 2023 and the 12-day war between Israel and Iran, Riyadh appears to be recalibrating its security partnerships.
• The renewed embrace of Islamabad can be read as a return to tradition: a pragmatic convergence of Sunni solidarity, shared ideological roots, and hard-nosed military calculus.

Geopolitical Reverberations Beyond South Asia

• While the immediate impact of the pact is felt in South Asia, its deeper resonance lies in West Asia’s evolving strategic order.
• Since 2023, the region has been marked by volatility, with shifting alliances and new power equations emerging amid ongoing conflicts.
• Riyadh’s decision to bind itself closer to Islamabad must be seen through its pursuit of strategic autonomy, multipolarity, and multi-alignment, principles that India too espouses in its foreign policy.
• Yet, as Saudi Arabia’s choices demonstrate, these goals do not always align neatly with Indian interests.
• Instead, they may place New Delhi and Riyadh on opposing sides of regional fault lines.

Implications for India’s Strategic Thought

• For India, the pact is not an existential threat, but it is a warning sign.
• It underscores that New Delhi’s engagement with West Asia, despite its visible expansion, cannot erase the deep-rooted ideological and religious bonds that tie Pakistan to Arab states.
• More crucially, it exposes the limits of India’s risk-averse strategic culture. By clinging to an idealised self-image as a cautious, pacifist power, India risks falling behind in a rapidly transforming global order.
• The Pakistan-Saudi deal is less about military commitments and more about the symbolism of unity, the leveraging of disruptions in the global system, and the opportunism of weaker powers to punch above their weight.

Conclusion

• It continues Riyadh’s long tradition of engaging Islamabad as a security partner, while simultaneously rupturing India’s narrative of having diplomatically cornered Pakistan.
• More broadly, it reflects the fragmentation of the post-Cold War order into a multipolar and unstable configuration where alignments are fluid, and symbolism often outweighs substance. For India, the lesson is sobering.
• If New Delhi fails to shed its strategic hesitation and embrace the risks inherent in great power politics, it risks ceding space to rivals who are more adept at exploiting global disorder.

Context

• When the United States imposed a 25% tariff hike on Indian imports in August 2025, New Delhi’s response was predictable: muted rhetoric, quiet diplomacy, and no open retaliation.
• This familiar choreography, Washington striking, India absorbing, was framed as another episode in turbulent bilateral ties.
• Yet beneath the surface, these tariffs revealed not merely a dispute between two capitals, but deeper structural weaknesses within India’s own economic geography.

The Geography of Export Concentration

• India’s export economy is far from evenly distributed.
• Four states, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka, dominate, accounting for over 70% of merchandise exports, with Gujarat alone contributing more than 33%.
• This dominance is no accident; it reflects decades of infrastructure development, policy incentives, and political continuity concentrated in these zones.
• In contrast, the populous heartland states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh together muster barely 5% of outbound trade, underscoring the stark disparities in India’s export geography.

The Marginalisation of the Northeast

• Nowhere is this imbalance more evident than in the northeast, a region of eight states sharing 5,400 kilometres of international borders but contributing just 0.13% to national exports.
• The exclusion is not accidental; it is structural.
• There are no operational trade corridors linking the northeast to global markets, no logistical infrastructure capable of supporting volume, and no institutional presence in national trade policymaking bodies.
• Flagship export schemes, such as the Remission of Duties and Taxes on Exported Products (RoDTEP) and the Production-Linked Incentive (PLI), are implemented in industrial belts of western and southern India.
• While the northeast remains symbolically embraced but economically orphaned.
• Even the Directorate General of Foreign Trade’s 2024 strategic export plan omitted the region entirely, a silence that elicited no protest, as if its exclusion were natural.
• The consequences are tangible. Assam’s tea industry, responsible for more than half of India’s tea output, remains vulnerable due to low value-addition and dependence on bulk CTC-grade auctions.

Borders as Bottlenecks

• The northeast’s trade potential has also been crippled by its borders.
• India’s once-promising gateways to Myanmar, Zokhawthar in Mizoram and Moreh in Manipur, have withered into securitised outposts.
• Since Myanmar’s 2021 coup, cross-border trade has thinned, infrastructure has stagnated, and the 2024 scrapping of the Free Movement Regime severed not only commerce but also kinship economies.
• Instead of functioning as bridges to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), these frontiers have become grids of containment.
• Goods do not flow; troops do. Roads exist largely on paper, customs offices are understaffed, and logistical facilities are absent.
• China, meanwhile, consolidates its foothold in northern Myanmar through investments and alliances, outpacing India’s rhetoric of Act East with hard infrastructure.

Broader Implication and the Way Forward

• Broader Implication: Asia Moves, India Hesitates
  • This paralysis contrasts starkly with the dynamism elsewhere in Asia.
  • China and Southeast Asia are actively repositioning capital, building corridors, and restructuring supply chains to adapt to global shifts.
  • India, by contrast, negotiates trade agreements with Western powers while leaving its eastern frontier disconnected from the substance of global commerce.
  • The assumption that trade can remain tethered to colonial-era ports and post-independence clusters ignores geography and undercuts resilience.
  • Without integrating the northeast into national and regional trade frameworks, India undermines its claim to Indo-Pacific centrality.
• The Way Forward: Toward a Cohesive Economy
  • Trump’s tariffs will not, on their own, derail India’s economy. But they expose the fragility of an export model concentrated in a few enclaves while neglecting entire regions.
  • A cohesive national economy requires dispersion of capacity, not dependence; infrastructure that connects peripheries, not just coasts; and governance that recognises geography, not just electoral arithmetic.
  • The northeast does not demand slogans. It needs the minimum grammar of statecraft: roads that connect to markets, policies that incorporate its geographies, and representation in institutions that shape trade strategy.
  • For decades, it has been asked to wait, through insurgencies, ceasefires, and empty acronyms, while the world reconfigures its trade flows. Delay now resembles design.

Conclusion

• India cannot claim regional heft while its eastern flank remains economically brittle.
• Tariffs may be episodic, but the structural omission of the northeast corrodes the promise of a cohesive economy.
• Resilience must be reframed: not as the strength of a few export hubs, but as the capacity of the entire country to absorb shocks and participate in global trade.
• Until then, India’s blind spot remains intact, and its ambitions in the Indo-Pacific rest on shaky foundations.