About National Green Tribunal:

• It was established in 2010 under the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to environmental protection and conservation of forests and other natural resources.
• It is a specialized body equipped with the necessary expertise to handle environmental disputes involving multi-disciplinary issues. 
• The Tribunal shall not be bound by the procedure laid down under the Code of Civil Procedure, 1908, but shall be guided by principles of natural justice.
• The Tribunal is mandated to make and endeavour for disposal of applications or appeals finally within 6 months of filing of the case.
• Locations: New Delhi is the Principal Place of Sitting of the Tribunal and Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai shall be the other four place of sitting of the Tribunal.
• Composition of NGT: The Tribunal comprises:

• Chairperson: A retired Supreme Court judge.
• Judicial members: Retired High Court judges.
• Expert members: Professionals with at least 15 years of experience in fields related to environment or forest conservation.

About PM internship scheme:

• It is a remarkable initiative launched by the Indian government, designed to provide valuable internship opportunities for the youth of India.
• It aims to bridge the gap between academic learning and real-world experience by offering internships across the top 500 companies.
• The pilot phase targets 1.25 lakh youth, with a five-year goal to facilitate internships for one crore young individuals.
• Through this Scheme, youth will gain exposure to real-life business environment, across varied professions and employment opportunities. 
• Under this scheme, interns will be provided monthly financial assistance of Rs 5,000 for 12 months and a one-time grant of Rs 6,000.
• Who is eligible for the scheme?

• Candidates aged between 21 and 24 years and who are not engaged in full-time employment.
• Internships are available to those who have passed class 10 or higher.
• Individuals from families with government jobs are excluded.
• It is not open to post-graduates.
• A candidate who graduated from premier institutes such as IIT, IIM, or IISER, and those who have CA, or CMA qualification would not be eligible to apply for this internship.
• Anyone from a household that includes a person who earned an income of Rs.8 lakh or more in 2023-24, will not be eligible.

About Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Pobitora wildlife sanctuary is located in east region of Guwahati, Assam.
• It was established in 1998 with a total area of 48.81 square kilometres. 
• The entire region around the sanctuary is a part of Brahmaputra flood plains. 
• The Sanctuary consists of the Rajamayong Reserve Forest and Pobitora Reserve Forest.
• It surrounds a number of small hills such as Kasasila hills, Hatimuria hill, Boha hill, Kardia hill, Govardan hill, Panbari hill etc.
• It is known for holding the highest density of Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros in the country. 
• Pobitora also holds the distinction of being the source population of the Indian Rhinoceros Vision, 2020 (IRV), Eight Rhinos were translocated from Pobitora Wild life Sanctuary and introduced into Manas National Park.
• Fauna: The Grasslands of Pobitora offer sightings of the Greater One Horned Rhinoceros, Wild Water Buffalo, Monitor Lizard, Wild Boar etc.
• Flora:

• 72% of Pabitora consists of wet savannah of Arundo donax, Erianthus ravennae, Phragmites karka, Imperata cylindrica, and Saccharum spp.
• Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is a major problem, especially to waterfowl, as it forms thick mats on the water surface.

About SpaDeX:

• The primary objective of the SpaDeX mission is to develop and demonstrate the technology needed for rendezvous, docking and undocking of two small spacecraft.
• Other objectives include:

• Demonstration of the transfer of electric power between the docked spacecraft, which is essential for future applications such as in-space robotics,
• Composite spacecraft control, and
• Payload operations after undocking.

• Two small spacecraft- SDX01 (the Chaser) and SDX02 (the Target) will be docked in a 476-km low-Earth circular orbit.
• Weight of two satellites: Approximately 220 kg each.
• Launch Vehicle: PSLV- C60
• The indigenous technology used for this mission is called the "Bharatiya Docking System".
• Significance: 

• It will make India the fourth country after USA, Russia and China in the world to achieve the feat. 
• SpaDEx mission is expected to be a stepping stone for India’s future endeavours in space exploration which include getting rocks and soil from the moon on Earth, the proposed Bharatiya Antariksha Station and landing an astronaut on the lunar surface. 

About WAVES:

• WAVES would be the first-ever global summit covering the entire gamut of Media and Entertainment industry. 
• The event will bring together industry leaders, stakeholders, and innovators to discuss prospects, challenges, promote trade to India, and influence the sector's future. 
• The Summit will also highlight India's advancements in animation, gaming, entertainment technology and regional and mainstream cinema.

About WAVES-India: 

• Vision: To position India as an unparalleled global powerhouse in the dynamic Media & Entertainment landscape while setting new standards of creativity, innovation, and influence worldwide.
• Mission: Empowering global Media & Entertainment leaders with exclusive investment opportunities through the premiere platform of WAVES.
• Objectives: 

• Position WAVES as a platform to provoke ideas, fuel conversations, facilitate knowledge exchange and engage in meaningful collaborations with M&E industry leaders from across the globe.
• To drive the country's Creative Economy through IP Creation for India & for the World.
• To position India as a business-friendly investment destination.
• To develop India’s M&E infrastructure and build capacity of the industry to ensure skilled workforce for global needs.
• To embrace and adapt to new trends, technology and transformations in the M&E landscape.

About Norovirus:

• It is a common and highly contagious virus that causes inflammation in the stomach and intestines, a condition known as gastroenteritis.
• It is also sometimes referred to as the ‘stomach flu’ or the ‘winter vomiting bug’.
• People of all ages can get infected and sick with norovirus, which spreads very easily and quickly.
• These viruses are responsible for about 90% of viral gastroenteritis outbreaks and close to 50% of cases across the world.
• You can get norovirus illness many times in your life because there are many different types of noroviruses.
• Transmission:

• They are commonly spread through food or water that is contaminated during preparation or through contaminated surfaces. 
• Noroviruses can also spread through close contact with a person who has a norovirus infection.

• Symptoms:

• The initial symptoms of norovirus are vomiting and/or diarrhoea, which show up one or two days after exposure to the virus.
• Patients also feel nauseous, and suffer from abdominal pain, fever, headaches and body aches.
• In extreme cases, loss of fluids could lead to dehydration.

• Treatment:

• No vaccines are currently available to prevent norovirus. Treatment for the infection focuses on relieving your symptoms.
• It is important to maintain hydration in the acute phase.
• In extreme cases, patients have to be administered rehydration fluids intravenously.

About Srisailam Temple:

• Srisailam Temple, or Sri Bhramaramba Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple, is a Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva, worshipped here in the form of Mallikarjuna Swamy. 
• It is located at Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh.
• It is surrounded by the forests of the Nallamala Hills, overlooking the pristine waters of the Krishna River.
• According to Hindu mythology, the temple is one of the 12 Jyotirlingas, divine manifestations of Lord Shiva spread across India.
• The Goddess Shakti is worshipped as Bramarambha in the temple and has a shrine dedicated to her. 
• This ancient temple built in the Dravidian style with lofty towers and sprawling courtyards is one of the finest specimens of Vijayanagara architecture. 
• Though the exact origins of the temple are not available, the Satavahanas of the 2nd century AD have referred to it. 
• The Kakatiyas and the Vijayanagara kings have made several endowments here.
• The unique feature of this temple is the combination of Jyothirlingam and Mahasakthi (in the form of Bhramarambika) in one campus, which is very rare and only one of its kind. 
• The great religious leader Aadi Sankara is said to have visited this shrine and composed his immortal Sivananda Lahiri here.

About INS Sarvekshak:

• It is an Indian Navy hydrographic survey ship, based at Southern Naval Command in Kochi.
• It is fitted with state-of-the-art survey equipment like Deep Sea Multi-Beam Echo Sounder, Side Scan Sonars and a fully automated digital surveying and processing system.
• In addition, the ship carries an integral Chetak helicopter, which would be extensively deployed during the survey. 
• The ship is the second ship of the Darshak class of ships and has a complement of 15 officers and 175 sailors.
• In the past, INS Sarvekshak has also undertaken foreign cooperation surveys in Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Seychelles, Tanzania, and Kenya.

What is Hydrography?

• It is the branch of applied sciences which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas, coastal areas, lakes, and rivers, as well as with the prediction of their change over time.
• This is done mainly with specialised ships and boats operating echo sounders and sonars, but also using survey aircraft fitted with lasers.
• Useful information can also be derived sometimes from satellite observations.
• It also involves measuring the tide and the currents.

About Bayraktar Akinci:

• It is a long-endurance unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) developed by Turkish drone manufacturer Baykar.
• It has been designed to perform various operations supporting fighter jets. It is capable of performing air-to-ground and air-to-air attack missions.
• Features:

• The combat drone has a length of 12.2 m, a height of 4.1 m, and a wingspan of 20 m.
• It stands out for its payload capacity of up to 1,500 kilograms, flight range of 25 hours, and range of 7,500 km. 
• It is equipped with dual satellite communication systems, air-to-air radar, electronic support systems, collision avoidance radar, and synthetic aperture radar.
• It is equipped with a triple redundant flight control system. 
• The dual artificial intelligence (AI)-powered avionics system integrated into the platform helps in improving signal processing, sensor fusion, and situational awareness in real time.
• The UCAV will be fitted with different weapon payloads such as laser-guided smart munitions, missiles, and long-range stand-off weapons.
• It is also the first drone capable of launching an air-launched cruise missile (ALCM).

About Sanjay Gandhi National Park (SGNP):

• SGNP, earlier known as Borivali National Park, is a large protected area near Borivali in the northern part of Mumbai. 
• It is situated partly in Thane District and in Mumbai Suburban District of Maharashtra.
• It covers an expansive area of 103 square kilometres, making it one of the largest parks within the city limits.
• The park is known for its dense forests, vast birdlife, butterflies, and small population of tigers.
• The Kanheri Caves in the center of the park were an important Buddhist learning center and pilgrimage site sculpted by Buddhist monks between the 9th and the 1st centuries BCE. 

• They were chiseled out of a massive basaltic rock outcropping.

• Besides, the park also has two artificial lakes, namely Tulsi Lake and Vihar Lake, the deer park, the lion safari, and the Samadhi of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Flora: Kadamba, Teak, Karanj, Shisham, and species of acacia, Ziziphus, euphorbias, etc are found in this National Park.
• Fauna: 

• The fauna of the park includes Mongoose, Four-horned antelope, Sambar, Atlas Moth, Wild boar, Languor, Monkey, Magar, and Panthers. 
• The park also boasts of 251 species of birds and a large variety of butterflies.

About Teesta River:

• It is a Himalayan Riverflowing through Sikkim and West Bengal in India and Rangpur in Bangladesh.
• It is a tributary of Brahmaputra
• This river forms a boundary between Sikkim and West Bengal.
• Course:
  • It rises in the Himalayasnear Chunthang in Sikkim, flows to the south, cutting a deep gorge through the Siwalik Hills east of Darjiling in West Bengal, and turns southeast to run through the Sivok Khola pass onto the plains of West Bengal.
  • Originally, the river continued southward to empty directly into the upper Padma River (Ganges River).
  • About 1787, however, the river changed its course to flow eastward, crossing the Rangpur region of Bangladesh to join the Jamuna River near Chilmari after a total course of about 200 miles (320 km).
• The flow of the Tista is greatest during the summer (June to September), when the monsoon rains are heaviest and glacierssupply abundant meltwater.
• Its lower reaches are marked by flooding and frequent, violent course changes; navigation is impaired by shoals and quicksand near the junction with the Jamuna.
• Major tributaries:
  • Left-bank: Lachung Chhu, Chakung Chhu, Dik Chhu, Rani Khola, Rangpo Chhu.
  • Right-bank: Zemu Chhu, Rangyong Chhu, Rangit River.

About PM- Ayushman Bharat Health Infrastructure Mission (PM-ABHIM):

• It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) with some Central Sector (CS) Components which has an outlay of Rs. 64,180 Crores for the scheme period (2021-22 to 2025-26).
• It is the largest pan-India scheme for strengthening healthcare infrastructure across the country.
• The measures under the scheme focus on developing capacities of health systems and institutions across the continuum of care at all levels viz. primary, secondary and tertiary level and on preparing health systems in responding effectively to the current and future pandemics/disasters.
• The objective of the scheme is to fill critical gaps in health infrastructure, surveillance and health research – spanning both the urban and rural areas.
• The following are the components under CS Component of the scheme:
  • 12 Central Institutions as training and mentoring sites with 150 bedded Critical Care Hospital Blocks (CCBs);
  • Strengthening of the National Centre for Disease Control (NCDC), 5 New Regional NCDCs and 20 metropolitan health surveillance units;
  • Expansion of the Integrated Health Information Portal to all States/UTs to connect all public health labs;
  • Operationalization of 17 new Public Health Units and strengthening of 33 existing Public Health Units at Points of Entry, that is at 32 Airports, 11 Seaports and 7 land crossings;
  • Setting up of 15 Health Emergency Operation Centres and 2 container based mobile hospitals; and
  • Setting up of a national institution for One Health, 4 New National Institutes for Virology, a Regional Research Platform for WHO South East Asia Region and 9 Biosafety Level III laboratories.
• Following support is provisioned for States/UTs under CSS component of the scheme:
  • Construction of 17,788 rural Health and Wellness Centres (HWCs). HWCs are to be established in plain areas having population of 5000 and in difficult areas - hilly, tribal, desert etc, having a population of 3000.
  • Support for 11,024 urban Health and Wellness Centres in all the States with the focus on slum like areas. One Urban-HWC is to be set up as per 15,000-20,000 population for catering predominantly to poor and vulnerable populations, residents of slum and slum-like areas.
  • Establishing 3382 Block Public Health Units (BPHUs) at block levels.
  • Setting up of Integrated Public Health Labs (IPHLs) in 730 districts.
  • Establishing Critical Care Hospital Blocks (CCBs) in 602 districts (with population more than 5 lakhs) and with referral linkages in other districts.

About ‘FREE-AI’ Committee:

• It is an eight-member panel constituted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to develop a framework for responsible and ethical Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the financial sector. 
• It will be headed byPushpak Bhattacharyya, Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering, IIT Bombay.
• The panel includes representatives from NITI Aayog, HDFC Bank, IIT Madras, the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology, law firm Trilegal, and Microsoft India.
• The committee, which will be supported by the RBI's fintech department, will be required to submit its report within six months from the date of its first meeting.
• The committee's mandate is to study the present level of AI adoption in financial services and review regulatory and supervisory approaches on AI with a focus on the financial sector globally.
• The committee will also recommend a framework including governance aspects for responsible, ethical adoption of AI models for the financial sector.
• The committee will also have to identify potential risks associated with AI and recommend an evaluation, mitigation, and monitoring framework for regulated entities.

About Sambar Deer:

• It is a large deer species native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. 
• Scientific Name: Rusa unicolor 
• In Nepal it is referred to as the Jarao and in China as the Four-eyed deer.
• Sambar deers are water-dependent so they are never found far from water.
• They can be found also in a broad range of forest habitats - dry deciduous forest, rainforest and mixed forests.
• They live alone or in small groups.
• Features:
  • A large, relatively long-tailed deer, it stands 1.2–1.4 m (47–55 inches) at the shoulder. 
  • It is the largest oriental deer, with some adult males reaching 550 kg in weight.
  • The coat forms a ruff around its neck and is an unspotted, dark brown in colour.
  • The male sambar bears long, rugged antlers with three points, or tines. 
  • They are quite elusive and are most active at dusk and at night. 
• IUCN Red List: Vulnerable

About GPS Spoofing:

• GPS spoofing, also known as GPS simulation, refers to the practice of manipulating or tricking a GPS receiver by broadcasting false GPS signals. 
• Essentially, it misleads the GPS receiver into believing it is located somewhere it is not, resulting in the device providing inaccurate location data.
• This form of cyberattack undermines the reliability of GPS data, which is vital for a variety of applications, from navigation to time synchronization and more.
• How Does GPS Spoofing Work?
  • It exploits the inherent vulnerabilities in the GPS infrastructure – the weak signal strength of GPS satellites.
  • The Global Positioning System (GPS) functions by sending signals from satellites to GPS receivers on Earth.
  • These receivers then calculate their position based on the time it takes for these signals to arrive.
  • However, due to the weak signal strength of the GPS satellites, these signals can be easily overwhelmed by fake signals, resulting in inaccurate location data on the receiving device.
  • Typically, a GPS spoofer begins by acquiring a basic understanding of the victim’s GPS setup, including the types of signals it uses and how they are processed.
  • With that information, the attacker then sends counterfeit GPS signals that mimic the real ones.
  • These fake signals are stronger, causing the receiver to recognize them as authentic signals.
  • As a result, the victim’s GPS receiver ends up processing these counterfeit signals, leading to erroneous location information.

About Kamarajar Port:

• Kamarajar Port, formerly known as Ennore Port,is located approximately 24 km north of Chennai in Tamil Nadu, India.
• It is the 12th major port of India and the first port in India which is a public company. 
• It was declared as a major port under the Indian Ports Act, 1908, in March 1999.
• It is the only corporatized major port and is registered as a company. 
• The port is owned by Chennai Port Trust, which also operates the Port of Chennai. 
• The port works in a landlord port model.
  • The landlord port is characterized by its mixed public-private orientation.
  • Under this model, the port authority acts as a regulatory body and as a landlord, while port operations (especially cargo handling) are carried out by private companies.
• The port has terminals for handling coal, LNG, containers, and multipurpose cargo. Coal is the main cargo shipped through Kamarajar Port.

About International Day of Epidemic Preparedness:

• It is annually observed on December 27 to advocate the importance of prevention of, preparedness for, and partnership against epidemics.
• It highlights the urgent need to invest in systems that can prevent, detect, and respond to infectious disease outbreaks.
• The first-ever International Day of Epidemic Preparedness, held on 27 December 2020, was called for by the United Nations General Assembly to advocate the importance of the prevention of, preparedness for, and partnership against epidemics.
• What is an Epidemic?
  • An epidemic is a sudden disease outbreak that affects a large number of people in a particular region, community, or population.
  • In an epidemic, the number of people affected by the disease is larger than what is normally expected.
  • Yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and polio are prime examples of epidemics. 
  • An epidemic disease doesn't necessarily have to be contagious.For example, West Nile fever and the rapid increase in obesity rates, both are considered epidemics. 

About Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant:

• It is a nuclear power plant under construction in Iswardi, Pabna District, Rajshahi Division, Bangladesh.
• It will be Bangladesh’s first source of nuclear power.
• Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (BAEC) is the owner of the Rooppur nuclear plant.
• It features two VVER-1200 reactors, created by Russian company Rosatom.
• Construction of both water-cooled reactors began in November 2017.
• Once completed, the two reactors at the Rooppur site, some 160 kilometres northwest of the capital, Dhaka, will generate 2400 megawatts of power, providing approximately 9 percent of Bangladesh's total electricity needs.
• The total estimated cost of the Rooppur nuclear plant is $12.65 billion US dollars.
• The construction is largely funded by a loan from Russia, to be paid back over 20 years.

About Denmark Strait Cataract:

• It is the largest waterfall on Earth, situated in an underwater channel between Iceland and Greenland.
• With a vertical fall measuring 2,000 metres, it’s over three times the height of the Angel Falls, the world's tallest land-based waterfall, which stands at just over 979 metres.
• Stretching across the width of the Denmark Strait, the cataract spans roughly 480 kilometres.
• Despite its size, the Denmark Strait cataract remains concealed beneath the waves and undetectable from the surface.
• Formation:
  • It was formed during the last Ice Age, approximately 17,500 to 11,500 years ago. 
  • Glacial activity in the region shaped the sloping seabed, which now channels cold water from the Nordic Seas into the Irminger Sea (marginal sea of the North Atlantic Ocean).
  • This process contributes significantly to the thermohaline circulation, a global system of ocean currents.

About Exercise Surya Kiran:

• It is a joint military exercise between the Indian army and Nepal army.
• It is an annual event, conducted alternately in both countries.
• It aims to enhance interoperability in forest warfare, counter-terrorism operations in mountains, and Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster Relief under the United Nations Charter. 
• Through various war games, both sides seek to improve their operational capabilities, refine their combat skills, and strengthen their coordination to operate together in challenging scenarios.
• The exercise will provide a platform for soldiers from India and Nepal to exchange ideas and experiences, share best practices, and foster a deeper understanding of each other’s operational procedures.
• 18th Edition:
  • It is scheduled to take place in Saljhandi, Nepal.
  • The Indian Army contingent is being led by a battalion from the 11th Gorkha Rifles, while the Nepal Army will be represented by the Srijung Battalion.

What are Biodiversity Credits?

• A biodiversity credit is a verifiable, quantifiable, and tradeable financial certificate rewarding positive biodiversity outcomes, such as the conservation or restoration of species, ecosystems, and natural habitats.
• They are gaining attention as a mechanism to finance biodiversity conservation and achieve the targets under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF).
  • The KMGBF, established during the 15th Conference of Parties (CoP15) of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), aims to promote biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of natural resources, and equitable benefit-sharing.
• Key features: It represents a specific amount of land or marine habitat conserved or restored over a fixed period.
  • Credits are generated by non-profits, governments, landowners, or companies and sold to private entities to fulfill biodiversity commitments.
• Examples of Biodiversity Credit Schemes: Terrasos, GreenCollar, ValueNature, CreditNature, Wilderlands.
• Market Overview:
  • Current Market Value: Estimated at $8 million (World Economic Forum).
  • Future Projections: Expected to grow to $2 billion by 2030 and $69 billion by 2050.

Biodiversity Credit Alliance (BCA):

• It is a voluntary international alliance supporting the implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
  • Focuses on Targets 19(c) and 19(d) of the frameworks.
• Targets under KMGBF:
  • Target 19(c): Businesses must monitor, assess, and disclose their biodiversity risks, dependencies, and impacts.
  • Target 19(d): Businesses must provide consumers with information to encourage sustainable consumption patterns.
• Mission: To develop a biodiversity credit market with science-based principles to guide conservation efforts.
• Governance:
  • Secretariat: Facilitated by UNDP and UNEP Finance Initiative (UNEP FI).
  • BCA Task Force: Decision-making body comprising methodology developers, standard setters, academic institutions, and representatives from Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (via the Communities Advisory Panel).

About the Canary Islands:

• The Canary Islands, a Spanish archipelago located about 62 miles west of Morocco, are part of the European Union's outermost regions.
  • The main islands include Lanzarote, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Tenerife, La Gomera, La Palma, and El Hierro.
• Climate and oceanic conditions: The islands experience a subtropical climate, characterized by warm temperatures and minimal seasonal variation.
  • The Canary Current, a cold ocean current flowing along Africa's northwest coast, contributes to the dry climate in the nearby Sahara Desert and the hazardous conditions at sea.
• Gateway to Europe: The Canary Islands have become a stepping stone for migrants seeking access to continental Europe. However, the journey is fraught with risks, including:
  • Strong ocean currents.
  • Overcrowded and poorly equipped boats.
  • Adverse weather conditions.
• Archipelago: It refers to a cluster or chain of islands located close together in a body of water, such as a sea, ocean, lake, or river. These islands commonly form due to volcanic activity, tectonic shifts, or sediment accumulation.

Atlantic Migration Route:

• The Atlantic migration route from West Africa to the Canary Islands has emerged as one of the most dangerous migration routes globally.
• The majority of the 10,457 deaths occurred on this route, highlighting the perilous conditions faced by migrants.

About NEER and REER:

• NEER (Nominal Effective Exchange Rate): It is the weighted average of a currency’s bilateral exchange rates with multiple trading partner currencies.
  • NEER reflects the nominal strength of a currency but does not adjust for inflation or price level differences.
  • A rise in NEER indicates nominal appreciation, while a decline signals depreciation.
• REER (Real Effective Exchange Rate): An improvement over NEER, it adjusts for relative price levels (inflation) between domestic and foreign economies.
  • Calculated as: NEER × (Domestic Price Index ÷ Foreign Price Index).
  • It is a purchasing power parity (PPP)-adjusted measure of competitiveness.
• Currency basket for India’s Indices: Earlier, the NEER and REER indices included six major currencies: US Dollar (USD), Euro (EUR), Japanese Yen (JPY), British Pound (GBP), Chinese Yuan (CNY), and Singapore Dollar (SGD).
  • The indices now encompass a broader basket of 36 currencies, reflecting India’s diverse trade relations.
• Factors influencing NEER and REER:
  • Productivity Differences: Affect competitiveness and influence REER values.
  • Terms of Trade: The balance of exports and imports can impact both indices.
  • Inflation: Higher inflation erodes currency value, affecting REER.
  • Fiscal Spending: Impacts economic stability and demand, influencing exchange rate dynamics.

Key Updates on REER:

• Record High REER: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has reported that the rupee's Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) reached 14 in November 2024, increasing from 107.20 in October 2024. This marks its highest level this year.
• Implications of Overvaluation: A REER value above 100 signifies that the rupee is overvalued relative to the base year (2015-16), leading to reduced export competitiveness while making imports cheaper.

About the Upper Siang Hydropower Project:

• It is a proposed 11,000 MW hydropower plant located on the Siang River (Brahmaputra in Arunachal Pradesh) in the Upper Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh.
• The Siang River is the upper course of the Brahmaputra River, revered as Aane Siang (Mother Siang) by locals.
• This project is envisioned as a strategic countermeasure to China's proposed 60,000 MW super dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo (Brahmaputra in Tibet) in Tibet's Medog County.

Key Details of the Project:

• Developers: Jointly undertaken by the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) and the North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO).
• Pre-Feasibility Report (submitted in December 2022):
  • Installed Capacity: 11,000 MW.
  • Reservoir Storage: 9 billion cubic meters (BCM).
  • Estimated Cost: ₹1,13,000 crore.
• The area is primarily inhabited by the Adi Tribe, an indigenous community with a strong connection to the Siang River.
• Residents rely on pani kheti (settled agriculture along riverbanks) for sustenance, as the hilly terrain offers limited farming opportunities.

The Adi Tribe:

• The Adi Tribe speaks Tibeto-Burman languages and traces its origins to southern China in the 16th century.
• They are skilled artisans, especially in crafting items from cane and bamboo.
• Major festivals include:
  • Solung: Harvest festival involving animal sacrifices.
  • Aran: Hunting festival.
• Unique Practices: The Motor or Pator system, a ritual involving self-restriction through village lockdowns to locate wild herbs during epidemics.

About Sea Otter:

• This aquatic member of the weasel family is found along the coasts of the Pacific Ocean in North America and Asia.
• It spends most of its time in the water but, in some locations, comes ashore to sleep or rest.
• Sea otters were extensively hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for their thick, soft fur.
• Their numbers rebounded after being listed as threatened and federally protected in 1977.
• Sea otters consume 50,000 to 120,000 green crabs annually, effectively controlling their population. This marks a significant solution to the invasive species problem on the West Coast of the United States.
• Unlike other marine mammals, sea otters rely on a high metabolism rather than blubber to stay warm in cold oceans. They consume about 25% of their body weight daily, making them voracious predators.
• Sea otters have webbed feet, water-repellent fur to keep them dry and warm, and nostrils and ears that close in the water.

Green Crab (Portunus Sanguinolentus):

• The green crab is a common littoral crab, recognized globally by names such as shore crab or green shore crab in the British Isles. It is one of the top 100 “world's worst alien invasive species”, showcasing its invasive nature.
• Habitat: Native to the Atlantic Ocean and Baltic Sea, but now spread to Australia, South America, and South Africa.
• Physical Features:
  • At maturity, the carapace width measures about 90 mm.
  • Colouration varies between green, brown, grey, and red, with delayed moulting causing red colouration.
• Diet: Feeds on small crustaceans, molluscs, and worms.
• Impact on Ecosystems: The green crab’s invasive behaviour harms coastal ecosystems by:
  • Damaging seagrass beds, critical habitats for various marine species.
  • Overhunting prey species, crucial for the survival of other native species.
  • Outcompeting native species for resources like food and habitat.

About Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Location: It is part of the Godavari estuary, where the Coringa river confluences into the Bay of Bengal in the Kakinada district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Between this area and the sea " Hope Island " blocks the direct confluence of the sea and Godavari.
• As a result, about 40% of the sanctuary is only sea-backwaters and the rest of the area is intermingled with creeks and gets inundated with tidal waters.
• Vegetation: It has extensive mangrove and dry deciduous tropical forests. It is the second-largest stretch of mangrove forests in India.
• Flora: It consists of Mangrove plants like Rhizophora spp, Avicennia spp, Sonnertia spp, etc.
• Fauna: It is home to endangered mammals like Smooth Indian otter, Fishing cat, Jackal, etc. Mangroves offer excellent habitat for birds like Black capped kingfisher, Brahminy kite, Sea gulls, Reef heron, Sand piper, etc.
• The sea coast of the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary is a breeding ground for Olive ridley turtles.

Key facts about Fishing Cat:

• The Fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) is a medium-sized wild cat.
• It is a solitary and nocturnal hunters that rest during the day amongst dense vegetation and then at night head to the water to find food. They are very strong swimmers and can swim large distances, often while pursuing a fish. 
• Appearance: It is a “small” cat of medium size and stocky build, with short legs, a short tail, and a face that is round but elongated. Females are noticeably smaller than males.
• Habitat: They live primarily in wetland areas, swamps, and marshy areas around oxbow lakes, reed beds, tidal creeks, and mangrove forests. 
• Distribution:  They are mainly found in Southeast Asia, including Sri Lanka and parts of Pakistan, in western India to southern China, Java, and Sumatra.
• Conservation Status:
• IUCN: Vulnerable
• CITES: Appendix II
• Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I

About National Rainfed Area Authority:

• It is an expert body to provide the much-needed knowledge inputs regarding systematic up-gradation and management of country’s dry land and rainfed agriculture.
• It was established in the year
• The NRAA has a two tier structure.  
• Governing Board: It provides necessary leadership and appropriate coordination in implementation of programmes. 
• The Governing Board is chaired by Union Minister of Agriculture and co-chaired by Union Minister of Rural Development.  
• Executive Committee: It consists of technical experts and representatives from stakeholder Ministries. 
• The Executive Committee is headed by a full time Chief Executive Officer who should be a recognized expert on the subject.  
• The CEO will be supported by five full-time technical experts.  The Authority is serviced by the Ministry of Agriculture and is located at Delhi.
• Mandate:
• Water conservation and covers all aspects of sustainable and holistic development of rainfed areas, including appropriate farming and livelihood system approaches.
• Issues pertaining to landless and marginal farmers, who constitute the large majority of inhabitants of rainfed areas, are to be addressed by the Authority.  
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare

About JIGYASA program:

• It was launched in 2017 by Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR). It is also known as CSIR Jigyasa program.
• It aims to promote curiosity and scientific temperament as part of Scientific Social Responsibility (SSR). 
• CSIR Jigyasa Virtual Lab (CJVL) is an extension of CSIR Jigyasa program.
• The objective of Jigyasa is to extend the classroom learning by focusing on well-planned research laboratory-based learning for school students. 
• To bring in quality with value added research knowledge, CSIR laboratories collaborate with Kendriya Vidyalayas (KVS), Navodaya Vidyalayas (NVS), Karnataka State S&T Academy (KSTA), Atal Innovation Mission (AIM), Niti Aayog, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, etc.
• Under this programme the target audience for the Virtual Lab platform is students of the standard VI to XII (11-18 years) who would like to explore science using different activities, experienced researchers and faculties on the subjects of Science, Mathematics, Biology and IT.

About Household Consumption Expenditure Survey (HCES):

• It is designed to collect information on consumption and expenditure of the households on goods and services.
• It provides data required to assess trends in economic well-being and to determine and update the basket of consumer goods and services and weights used for the calculation of the Consumer Price Index.
• Data collected in HCES is also used to measure poverty, inequality, and social exclusion.
• The Monthly Per Capita Consumption Expenditure (MPCE) compiled from HCES is the primary indicator used for most analytical purposes.
• As in HCES 2022-23, in HCES 2023-24 also, two sets of estimates of MPCE have been generated:
• Without considering imputed values of items received free of cost by the households through various social welfare programmes, and
• Considering imputed values of items received free of cost by the households through various social welfare programmes.
• This survey is conducted by National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) under the Ministry of Statistics & Programme Implementation (MoSPI).

Important Findings of HCES 2023-24:

• In nominal prices, the average MPCE (without imputation) in 2023-24 increases by about 9% in rural areas and 8% in urban areas from the level of 2022-23.
• The urban-rural gap in MPCE has declined to 71% in 2022-23 from 84% in 2011-12. It has further come down to 70% in 2023-24 that confirms sustained momentum of consumption growth in rural areas.
• When ranked by MPCE, the increase in the average MPCE in 2023-24 from the level of 2022-23 has been the maximum for the bottom 5 to 10 % of India’s population, for both rural and urban areas.
• Consistent with the trend observed in HCES:2022-23, non-food items remain the major contributor to the household’s average monthly expenditure in 2023-24
• Beverages, refreshments and processed food continues to have the major expenditure share in 2023-24 in the food items basket of the rural and urban households.
• Conveyance, clothing, bedding & footwear, miscellaneous goods & entertainment and durable goods have major expenditure share in non-food expenditure of the households in both rural and urban areas.
• Consumption inequality, both in rural and urban areas has declined from the level of 2022-23. The Gini coefficient has declined to 0.237 in 2023-24 from 0.266 in 2022-23 for rural areas and to 0.284 in 2023-24 from 0.314 in 2022-23 for urban areas.

About Heliobacter pylori:

• It is a common type ofbacteria that grows in the digestive tract of human and tends to attack the stomach lining. 
• It is adapted to live in the harsh, acidic environment of the stomach.
• It infects a person usually during childhood. Its infections are usually harmless, but they are responsible for most ulcers in the stomach and small intestine, called peptic ulcers.
• Infections with  pyloriaffect over 43 percent of the world’s population with a wide range of gastrointestinal disorders, including peptic ulcers, gastritis, dyspepsia and even gastric cancer.
• How it survives in stomach?
• This bacterium can change the environment around it and reduce the acidity so it can survive more easily.
• The spiral shape of pylori allows it to penetrate the stomach lining, where it’s protected by mucus and the body’s immune cells cannot reach it. 
• When signs or symptoms do occur with pylori infection, they are typically related to gastritis or a peptic ulcer and may include:
• An ache or burning pain in stomach (abdomen)
• Nausea, loss of appetite and unintentional weight loss etc.
• Treatment: It can be treated with a combination of antibiotics and a proton-pump inhibitor. This treatment is sometimes referred to as triple therapy.
  • The proton pump inhibitor includes esomeprazole, lansoprazole, omeprazole, pantoprazole, rabeprazole sodium.
  • Antibiotics includes clarithromycin, metronidazole, amoxicillin.

About National Human Rights Commission (NHRC):

• The NHRC is an independent statutory body established on October 12, 1993, under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
• It serves as a guardian of human rights in India, overseeing the rights associated with life, liberty, equality, and dignity as guaranteed by the Constitution of India and international covenants.
• The NHRC aligns with the Paris Principles on Human Rights, ensuring accountability and compliance.

Definition of Human Rights:

• According to Section 2(1)(d) of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993, human rights encompass the rights related to life, liberty, equality, and dignity protected by the Constitution or outlined in international treaties enforceable in Indian courts.

NHRC Composition

• The NHRC is a multi-member body, comprising:
  • Full-Time Members:
    • A chairperson (retired Chief Justice of India or Supreme Court judge).
    • Members include a sitting/retired Supreme Court judge, a Chief Justice of a High Court, and three experts in human rights (one must be a woman).
  • Ex-Officio Members: Chairpersons of:
    • National Commission for Minorities, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Women, Backward Classes, Protection of Child Rights, and Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities.

Appointment:

• Members are appointed by the President of India based on recommendations from a six-member committee led by the Prime Minister, with participation from:
  • Speaker of the Lok Sabha, Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha,
  • Leaders of the Opposition in both Houses of Parliament,
  • Union Home Minister.
• Consultation with the Chief Justice of India is required for appointing judicial members.

Tenure and Conditions of Service:

• Term: 3 years or up to 70 years of age (whichever is earlier).
• Reappointment: Allowed after completing the term.
• After tenure, members cannot seek employment with the Central or State governments.

Salaries and Allowances:

• Determined by the Central Government, but terms cannot be altered to members’ disadvantage post-appointment.

Removal Process:

• The President of India can remove members on grounds such as:
  • Insolvency, paid employment outside office, physical/mental incapacity, unsound mind, or criminal conviction.
  • For misconduct or incapacity, the matter is referred to the Supreme Court for inquiry, and removal is based on its recommendation.

About Wealth Tax:

• Wealth Tax is levied on the net market value of various assets owned by an individual, such as cash, bank deposits, shares, fixed assets, personal cars, and real property.
• Globally, several countries like France, Portugal, and Spain impose wealth tax.
• The primary objective of the tax is to target unproductive and non-essential assets of individuals.

Wealth Tax in India:

• Introduction: The Wealth Tax Act was introduced in 1957 based on the recommendations of the Kaldor Committee (1955) as a part of tax rationalization measures.
  • It imposed a 1% tax on earnings exceeding ₹30 lakh per annum for individuals, Hindu Undivided Families (HUFs), and companies.
• Abolition: Abolished in 2015 due to issues such as Extensive litigation, Increased compliance burden, and High administrative costs.
  • Replaced by an increase in the surcharge on the super-rich.
• Replacement measures: The surcharge for individuals with income exceeding ₹1 crore and companies with income over ₹10 crore was increased from 2% to 12%.

Other Relevant Economic Concepts:

• Tobin Tax: A tax on financial transactions, especially currency exchanges.
• Pigovian Tax: Levied to correct negative externalities (e.g., pollution tax).
• Laffer Curve: Demonstrates the relationship between tax rates and tax revenue.
• Tax-GDP Ratio: Indicates the tax revenue as a percentage of GDP, critical for fiscal analysis.

Overview:

The Madhya Pradesh government has announced the translocation of 15 tigers to Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.

• This initiative involves 12 tigresses and 3 tigers, subject to approval from the Central Government.
• The tigers will be relocated from the Bandhavgarh, Pench, and Kanha Tiger Reserves.

About Kanha Tiger Reserve (KTR):

• Kanha Tiger Reserve, also known as Kanha National Park, is the largest national park in Madhya Pradesh.
• Location: Spread across Mandla and Balaghat districts, nestled in the Maikal range of Satpuras, forming part of the Central Indian Highlands.
• History: It was established as a national park on June 1, 1955, and Declared a Tiger Reserve in 1973.
• Cultural Reference: The reserve inspired Rudyard Kipling’s "The Jungle Book".
• Mascot: It was the first in India to introduce an official mascot, Bhoorsingh the Barasingha.
• Flora:
  • Lowland Forests are dominated by sal (Shorea robusta) and mixed forest trees interspersed with meadows.
  • Highland Forests consist of tropical moist deciduous trees with bamboo (Dendrocalamus strictus) on slopes.
• Fauna: Significant populations of Royal Bengal Tigers, leopards, sloth bears, and Indian wild dogs. Globally renowned for saving the Barasingha (state animal of Madhya Pradesh) from extinction.

About Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve:

• Located in the Umaria district of Madhya Pradesh, Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve lies between the Vindhyan and Satpura ranges.
• It was declared a national park in 1968 and became a Tiger Reserve in 1993.
• Cultural Significance: Home to the Bandhavgarh Fort, said to have been gifted by Lord Rama to his brother Lakshmana, lending the name Bandhavgarh ("Brother’s Fort").
• Flora: Dominated by tropical moist deciduous forests, sal trees, grasslands, and bamboo on lower slopes. Notable species include Saj, Dhaora, Tendu, Arjun, Amla, and Palas.
• Fauna: Known for the highest density of Royal Bengal Tigers in India and the world. Other species like Leopards, wild dogs, wolves, jackals, chital, sambar, barking deer, nilgai, and chowsingha.

About Pench Tiger Reserve:

• Pench Tiger Reserve spans the Seoni and Chhindwara districts in Madhya Pradesh and extends into the Nagpur district in Maharashtra.
• The Pench River, flowing north to south through the reserve.
• Components: Includes the Indira Priyadarshini Pench National Park, Pench Mowgli Sanctuary, and a buffer zone.
• Cultural connection: Inspired by Rudyard Kipling’s "The Jungle Book".
• Terrain: Undulating landscape with small hills and steep slopes.
• Vegetation: Mosaic of vegetation types, from moist valleys to dry deciduous forests.
• Flora: Diverse flora includes teak, saag, mahua, and various grasses and shrubs.
• Fauna: Abundant populations of Chital, Sambar, Nilgai, Gaur (Indian Bison), and wild boar.
  • Key predators: Tiger, followed by leopard, wild dogs, and wolf.
  • Rich avian diversity with over 325 species of birds, including the Malabar Pied Hornbill, Indian Pitta, and Grey-Headed Fishing Eagle.

About CAG:

• The Comptroller and Auditor General of India (CAG), under Article 148 of the Indian Constitution, plays a pivotal role in the financial administration of the country.
• The CAG is the guardian of the public purse, ensuring accountability and transparency in the management of public funds at both the Central and State levels.
• The CAG safeguards the Constitution and parliamentary laws, upholding financial discipline.
• It is a key institution for promoting accountability and ensuring checks and balances in a democratic system.

Constitutional and Legal Provisions for the CAG:

• Article 148:
  • Appointment: The President appoints the CAG under his/her hand and seal.
  • Tenure and Conditions: Determined by Parliament; CAG cannot hold further office under Central or State governments.
  • Independence: Salary, allowances, and pensions are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India (CFI), ensuring autonomy.
• Duties and Powers (Article 149): Parliament prescribes the CAG's powers and functions.
• Form of Accounts (Article 150): Prescribes the manner of keeping accounts for the Union and States on the President’s advice.
• Submission of Reports (Article 151): Reports on Union accounts are submitted to the President and placed before Parliament. Reports on State accounts are submitted to the Governor and placed before the respective State Legislature.
• Certification of Net Proceeds (Article 279): CAG certifies the net proceeds of taxes and duties, which is final and binding.
• CAG’s (Duties, Powers, and Conditions of Service) Act, 1971:
  • Tenure: Six years or until the age of 65, whichever is earlier.
  • Removal: Follows the procedure for removing a Supreme Court judge.
  • Resignation: Addressed to the President.
  • Service Conditions: Cannot be varied to the CAG's disadvantage after appointment.

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?

• AI refers to machines performing human-like tasks such as learning, reasoning, and decision-making.
• Core components include:
  • Machine Learning (ML): Algorithms that improve over time with data.
  • Neural Networks: Mimicking the human brain for pattern recognition.
  • Natural Language Processing (NLP): Enabling machines to understand and generate human language.
• AI systems process inputs, apply algorithms and deliver intelligent outputs.

Types of Artificial Intelligence:

• Narrow AI: Task-specific systems like virtual assistants (e.g., Alexa, Siri).
• General AI: Mimics human intelligence across diverse tasks (yet to be achieved).
• Super AI: A hypothetical future form surpassing human intelligence.

AI Techniques in Machine Learning:

• Supervised Learning: Uses labelled data to predict outcomes (e.g., facial recognition).
• Unsupervised Learning: Identifies patterns in unlabelled data (e.g., clustering algorithms).

How Does AI Work?

• Data acquisition: Collect and preprocess data.
• Feature extraction: Identify relevant patterns in the data.
• Algorithm selection and training: Use machine learning, deep learning, or rule-based methods to create models.
• Evaluation and deployment: Optimize and deploy models to make intelligent predictions or decisions.

Indian Pharmaceutical Industry’s Growth Potential:

• Current market size: Approximately USD 58 billion, expected to grow to USD 120-130 billion by 2030.
• Global contribution: India contributes about 20% of the global generic drug supply, focusing on affordability and quality.
• Policy support and digital talent: India is leveraging favourable policies, a skilled workforce, and digital innovation to strengthen its global healthcare position.

About UNDOF:

• It was established by UN Security Council Resolution 350 (1974) on 31 May 1974 immediately following disengagement of Forces Agreement between Israel and Syria.
• Mandate: To maintain the ceasefire and supervise the area of separation — a demilitarized buffer zone — as well as the area of limitation — where Israeli and Syrian troops and equipment are restricted — in the Golan.
  • The mandate of the mission is regularly renewed every six months and it has been extended till June 2025.
• Method of financing: UNDOF is funded through a separate account approved on an annual basis by the UN General Assembly. 
• India is the top third troop and police contributing countries to this mission.
• Headquarter: Camp Faouar, Syria

Key points about Golan Heights

• It is a hilly area overlooking the upper Jordan River valley on the west.
• It is a Syrian territory occupied by Israel since 1967.
• Borders: It is bounded by the Jordan River and the Sea of Galileeon the west, Mount Hermon on the north, the seasonal Wadi Al-Ruqqād River on the east, and the Yarmūk River on the south.

About SVAMITVA Scheme:

• The Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas (SVAMITVA) is a central sector scheme, launched in 2020.
• It was launched with a vision to enhance the economic progress of rural India by providing ‘Record of Rights’ to households possessing houses in inhabited areas in villages through the latest surveying drone technology.
• The scheme seeks to achieve the following objectives:
• To bring financial stability to the citizens in rural India by enabling them to use their property as a financial asset for taking loans and other financial benefits.
• Creation of accurate land records for rural planning.
• Determination of property tax, which would accrue to the GPs directly in States where it is devolved or else, add to the State exchequer.
• Creation of survey infrastructure and GIS maps that can be leveraged by any department for their use.
• To support in preparation of better-quality Gram Panchayat Development Plan (GPDP) by making use of GIS maps.
• To reduce property related disputes and legal cases.
• Nodal Ministry: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj (MoPR) is the Nodal Ministry for implementation of the scheme. 

About Veer Baal Diwas:

• It is annually observed on December 26 every year since 2022.
• It is commemorated to honour the martyrdom of Baba Fateh Singh and Zorawar Singh, the sons of 10th Guru Govind Singh Ji.
• Background:
• Guru Gobind Singh, along with his family and disciples, were compelled to flee as the Mughal Army encircled the Anandpur fort.
• During the chaos, Guru Gobind Singh’s sons, Zorawar Singh and Fateh Singh, were captured by the Mughal forces.
• The two young boys courageously refused to abandon their faith, and consequently, Wazir Khan ordered them to be bricked alive around December 26, 1705.
• Exemplifying bravery and loyalty to their religion, Government of India in 2022 declared to mark December 26 as Veer Bal Diwas annually to honour and remember their sacrifice.

Who was Guru Gobind Singh?

• Guru Gobind Singh was the 10th Sikh Guru, following the demise of his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, the 9th Guru.
• Contributions to Sikh religion:
• He is renowned for founding the principles of Khalsa or the Five ‘K’s viz. kesh (uncut hair), kangha (wooden comb), kara (iron or steel bracelet), kirpan (dagger) and kachera (short breeches).
• He fought against the Mughals in the Battle of Muktsar in 1705.
• He declared Guru Granth Sahib as Sikhism's holy scripture in 1708, before his death.

About Bald Eagle:

• The Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a magnificent bird of prey found in North America.
• It usually leads a solitary life, gathering in groups during nesting season. 
• Appearance:
• Its body and wings are dark browns in color while the head and tail are white.
• The legs and feet are bright yellow and the eyes are light yellow.
• Males of this species are smaller than females.
• Habitat: It typically prefers areas near large water bodies such as sea coasts, coastal estuaries and inland lakes and rivers, in many areas,
• Reproduction: Bald eagles have a monogamous mating system. These birds are believed to mate for life, or until a pair member dies.
• Distribution: Their range extends from the Mexico border through the United States and Canada.
• They can be seen year-round in Alaska, along the East and West coasts, the Rocky Mountains, and the Mississippi River. 
• The rest of the United States only sees bald eagles during the winter and their migration.
• Conservation status:
• IUCN: Least Concern

About Kaveri Engine:

• The Kaveri engine project began in the late 1980s with the goal of powering the Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Tejas.
• It has been developed by the Gas Turbine Research Establishment under the Defence Research and Development Organisation. 
• Features:
• The current version of the Kaveri engine produces approximately 49-51 kN of thrust.
• This thrust level is suitable for UAV applications like the Ghatak, India's stealth UCAV program. The DRDO plans to integrate an afterburner to increase the thrust to 73-75 kN for more demanding scenarios.
• The Kaveri engine has undergone extensive ground testing, modifications, and enhancements over the years.
• It has been tested in high-altitude simulations in Russia and ground trials in India. These tests demonstrated promising results in reliability, thrust output, and operational stability, meeting the required performance metrics for inflight testing.
• Significance: This signifies a major step for India's self-reliance in aero-engine technology, particularly for unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) like the Ghatak stealth UCAV program.