About Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement  (PMDA):

• It is an agreement between the United States and Russia signed in 2000.
• It came into force in 2011.
• It aimed at reducing vast stockpiles of weapons-grade plutonium left over from thousands of Cold War nuclear warheads.
  • After dismantling thousands of warheads after the Cold War, both Moscow and Washington were left with huge stockpiles of weapons-grade plutonium which was costly to store and posed a potential proliferation risk.
• The aim of the PMDA was to dispose of the weapons-grade plutonium, by converting it into safer forms - such as mixed oxide (MOX) fuel or by irradiating plutonium in fast-neutron reactors for electricity production.
• It committed both the United States and Russia to dispose of at least 34 tonnes of weapons-grade plutonium each.
• Russia in 2016 suspended implementation of the agreement, citing U.S. sanctions and what it cast as unfriendly actions against Russia, NATO enlargement, and changes to the way the United States was disposing of its plutonium.
  • Russia said at the time that the United States had not abided by the agreement after Washington moved, without Russian approval, to simply dilute the plutonium and dispose of it.

About Subansiri Upper Hydroelectric Project:

• It is a 1,800 MW hydropower project.
• It is a run-of-the-river project planned on the Subansiri River basin in Arunachal Pradesh.
• It is expected to enter into commercial operation in 2031.
• The project is being developed by KSK Upper Subansiri Hydro Energy and is currently owned by KSK Energy Ventures.
• The gross head of the project will be 199.5 m.
• The project is expected to generate 6,581.29 GWh of electricity. The project cost is expected to be around $2,346.87m.

Key Facts about Subansiri River:

• It is a Trans-Himalayan river originating from the western part of Mount Porom (5059 m) in the Tibetan Himalaya. (Kangig glacier range in Tibet)
• It is also called the Gold River, the Subansiri River is famous for its gold dust.
• It enters into the plains of Assam through a gorge near Gerukamukh.
• It is the right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra. It joins the Brahmaputra River in the Lakhimpur district of Assam.
• It flows through Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Tibet Autonomous Region of China.
• Tributaries: Major tributaries of the river are Laro, Nye, Yume, Tsari, Kamla, Jiyadhol, Ranganadi and Dikrong.

About Bridgeoporus kanadii:

• It is a new species of fungi discovered in Arunachal Pradesh.
• It has exceptionally large fruiting bodies that can hold the weight of a person. Some fruiting bodies measured over three meters in radius.
• The species is named in honor of Indian mycologist Kanad Das for his contributions to Indian macrofungi.
• The only other known species in Bridgeoporus, B. nobilissimus, is native to North America and has fruiting bodies up to about 1.5 meters. B. kanadii doubles that in size.
• Bridgeoporus fungi play a vital role in forest regeneration by helping to decompose dead wood.
• Most of the B. kanadii the researchers spotted in Arunachal Pradesh were growing on dead fir trees.
• Though the fungus is massive and visually striking, it is inedible and offers no direct economic use.

About Damodar River:

• The Damodar River flows through the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.
• Located in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, it is an important part of the Ganges River System.
• The river is also known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" because of its devastating floods in the plains of West Bengal.
• Course:
  • It originates from the Palamau hills of Chota Nagpur in Jharkhand.
  • From its source, the river flows in a southeastern direction, passing through the Chota Nagpur Plateau, a region known for its rich mineral deposits.
  • In its lower course, it flows through West Bengal’s plains and is joined by several tributaries.
  • Finally, the Damodar River meets the Hooghly River at Shayampur, which is 48 km from Kolkata.
• Total Length: 592 km
• The basin has a total catchment area of 25,820 sq.km.
• The Damodar River has several tributaries, including:
  • Barakar River
  • Konar River
  • Jamunia River
  • Bokaro River
  • Sali River
  • Ghari River
  • Guaia River
  • Khadia River
  • Bhera River
• Damodar Valley Project:
  • It is a significant river valley project in Eastern India, implemented to supply hydroelectric power to West Bengal and Bihar, as well as to prevent floods
  • The project is operated by the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC), an undertaking of the Indian Government established in July 1948.
  • It is situated on the Konar River in the district of Hazaribagh in Jharkhand.

About Crohn's Disease:

• It is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that causes swelling and irritation of the tissues, called inflammation, in the digestive tract.
• It can affect any part of the digestive tract. But it usually affects the small intestine and the beginning of the large intestine.
• The inflammation often spreads into the deeper layers of the bowel.
• Crohn’s disease can be both painful and debilitating. Sometimes, it may lead to serious or life-threatening complications.
• The symptoms of Crohn's disease can vary, depending on where and how severe your inflammation is. The most common symptoms include:
• Diarrhea
• Cramping and pain in abdomen
• Weight loss
• It is more likely to develop in people between the ages of 20 and 29.
• Experts aren’t sure what causes Crohn’s disease but think genes, abnormal immune reactions, and the microbiome play a role.
• Treatment:
  • There’s no known cure for Crohn’s disease, but therapies can greatly reduce its symptoms and even bring about long-term remission and healing of inflammation.
  • With treatment, many people with Crohn’s disease can function well.

About Mera Hou Chongba Festival:

• It is celebrated in Manipur on the 15th lunar day of the Mera month of the Meitei calendar every year.
• The festival's historical roots are believed to date back to the time of Nongda Lairen Pakhangba, a legendary early ruler of Manipur.
• Rituals: Manipur titular King lead a ritual march involving tribal village chiefs from the Manipur Royal Palace to the historic Kangla, where traditional rituals, including Mera Thaomei Thanba (lighting of the ceremonial fire) and Mera Yenkhong Tamba (exchange of gifts).
• The festival will culminate with a showcase of cultural dances and a grand feast marking the brotherhood among different tribes in the state.
• It is the only festival in Manipur in which all indigenous communities participate, and it has a significant importance in the unity and communal harmony of Manipur.

About Paramyrothecium strychni:

• It is a fungus species associated with an emerging leaf spots and blights disease of Strychnos dalzellii(Family-Loganiaceae) from  
• This new species has been discovered and established on the basis of morpho-cultural and multigene molecular phylogenetic evidence.
• According to Index Fungorum, a total of 25 species of Paramyrothecium are recognized worldwide, and most of them are reported as plant pathogens.
• Species of Paramyrothecium mostly causes leaf spots and blights in all kind of plants.

What is Strychnos dalzellii?

• It is an endemic medicinal plant of the Western Ghats.
• It is valued for its alkaloids with analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties. Traditionally, it is used in treating fever, digestive disorders, rheumatism, and nervous ailments.
• Strychnos dalzellii is locally known as Kanjiram or Modirakanjiram.
• Conservation Status: It is categorised as Vulnerable (VU) under the IUCN Red List.
• Threats: Habitat degradation, and overexploitation.

About PM-KUSUM Scheme:

• It was launched in 2019 with the objective to provide energy and water security to farmers, enhance their income, de-dieselize the farm sector, and reduce environmental pollution.
• Target: To add Solar capacity of about 34,800 MW by March 2026.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE).
• The eligible categories for KUSUM Scheme are:
  • An individual farmer.
  • A group of farmers.
  • FPO
  • Co-operatives.
  • Water User Associations.
• Components of PM-KUSUM Scheme:
  • Component A:  Setting up of 10,000 MW of Decentralized Grid Connected Renewable Energy Power Plants on barren land.
    • Under this component, renewable energy based power plants (REPP) of capacity 500 kW to 2 MW will be setup by individual farmers/ group of farmers/ cooperatives/ panchayats/ Farmer Producer Organisations (FPO)/ on barren/fallow land.
    • The power generated will be purchased by the local DISCOM at a pre-fixed tariff determined by the respective State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC).
    • The renewable energy power project will be installed within a five km radius of the sub-stations.
  • Component B: Installation of 20 lakhs of standalone Solar Powered Agriculture Pumps.
    • Individual farmers will be supported to install standalone solar Agriculture pumps of capacity up to 7.5 HP for the replacement of existing diesel Agriculture pumps / irrigation systems in off-grid areas, where grid supply is not available.
  • Component C: For Solarisation of 15 Lakh Grid Connected Agriculture Pumps.
    • Under this Component, individual farmers having grid connected agriculture pumps will be supported to solarise pumps.
    • The farmer will be able to use the generated solar power to meet the irrigation needs and the excess solar power will be sold to DISCOMs at pre-fixed tariff.

About Income Tax Appellate Tribunal:

• It is a quasi-judicial institution set up in January, 1941 and specializes in dealing with appeals under the Direct Taxes Acts.
• It was started in 1941 with six Members constituting three Benches – one each at Delhi, Kolkata (Calcutta), and Mumbai (Bombay).
• Presently ITAT has 63 Benches at 27 different cities, covering almost all the cities having a seat of the High Court.
• Nodal Ministry: It functions under the Ministry of Law and Justice.
• Composition of Income Tax Appellate Tribunal
  • The President of the ITAT constitutes a bench from among the members of the ITAT.
  • Each bench has an accountant member and a judicial member.
  • In some cases, a special bench with three or more members may be constituted to dispose of income tax appeals.
• Functions of Income Tax Appellate Tribunal:
  • It hears appeals concerning orders passed by the income-tax authorities.
  • It adjudicates appeals made under the Income Tax Act of 1961.
  • ITAT serves as the final fact-finding body in tax disputes, offering both taxpayers and the income tax authorities a convenient platform to resolve disputes.
  • It is the second forum to hear income-tax appeals after the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals)
  • ITAT functions under the regional High Court’s jurisdiction and must adhere to the rules of the same.
  • ITAT is subordinate to both the region’s High Court and the Indian Supreme Court.
• Who can file an appeal in ITAT?
  • A tax appeal can be filed by a taxpayer who does not agree with the assessment order or any other order, passed by an income-tax authority.
  • An appeal before the ITAT is generally filed by the taxpayer to contest any order passed by the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals).
  • Similarly, an income-tax department can also file an appeal against any order passed by the Commissioner of Income-tax (Appeals) before the ITAT.
  • The orders passed by the ITAT are final. An appeal lies to the High Court only if a substantial question of law arises for determination.

About Foreign Currency Settlement System:

• It is established under a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework of the Payment and Settlement Systems Act, 2007.
• It is authorised by International Financial Services Centres Authority (IFSCA).
• Key Features
  • It enables foreign currency transactions between IFSC Banking Units (IBUs) to be settled locally instead of routing through the traditional correspondent banking route.
  • It provides a structured framework for the settlement of foreign currency transactions, enabling market participants to process cross-border payments with greater speed, reliability, and legal certainty.
• Initially, the system will support US dollar transactions, with scope to add other foreign currencies over time. 
• It is operated by the CCIL IFSC Limited (CCIL IFSC), a subsidiary of Clearing Corporation of India Limited.
  • Currently, foreign currency transactions in GIFT IFSC are processed via correspondent banking routes i.e through multiple Nostro account relationships (accounts held with foreign banks) and intermediaries to route funds.
  • That chain of relay can lead to settlement lags of 36 to 48 hours.

What is the International Financial Services Centres Authority?

• It is a statutory authority established under the International Financial Services Centres Authority Act, 2019.
• The IFSCA is a unified authority for the development and regulation of financial products, financial services, and financial institutions in the International Financial Services Centre (IFSC) in India. 
• The IFSCA aims to develop a strong global connection and focus on the needs of the Indian economy as well as to serve as an international financial platform for the entire region.
• Headquarter: GIFT City, Gandhinagar, in Gujarat.

About Nangal Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is a protected area located in the foothills of the Shivalik Hills in the Rupnagar district, in the state of Punjab.
• Established as a sanctuary in 2009, it was designated a Ramsar site in 2019.
• It spans an area of 116 hectares and forms a part of the larger Nangal Wetland, situated on the banks of the Sutlej
• It occupies a human-made reservoir constructed as part of the Bhakra-Nangal Project in 1961.
• The site is of historic importance, as the Indian and Chinese Prime Ministers formalized the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence” there in 1954.
• It supports rich biodiversity, including over 150 bird species and several threatened animals such as the Indian pangolin, Egyptian vulture, and leopards.
• This sanctuary is a crucial migratory stopover for many bird species, particularly waterfowl.

About Unicorn Company:

• A unicorn company is a privately owned start-up that has been valued at over $1 billion.
• It is commonly used in the venture capital industry. The term was first popularized by venture capitalist Aileen Lee in 2013, when she referred to the 39 startups that had a valuation of over $1 billion as unicorns.
• Key Characteristics of a Unicorn Startup:
  • Valuation: A billion-dollar valuation or more.
  • Private Ownership: Not publicly traded on a stock market.
  • High Growth Potential: Demonstrates rapid growth and innovation.
  • Disruptive Technology: Often introduces innovative products or services that disrupt existing industries.
  • Attracts Significant Investment: Secures substantial funding from venture capitalists and other investors.
• The valuation of unicorns is not expressly linked to their current financial performance, but largely based on their growth potential as perceived by investors and venture capitalists who have taken part in various funding rounds.
• Some unicorns choose to go public by launching an initial public offering (IPO); some opt to remain private using their funding rounds to avoid going public; and still others end up getting acquired by bigger companies.
• As of July 2025, there are over 1,200 unicorns around the world.

What are Gazelles and Cheetahs in the Startup ecosystem?

• Gazelle is a startup founded after 2000 with the potential to go unicorn in two years, while “cheetah” may go unicorn in the next four years.
• Gazelles have an estimated valuation ranging from $500 million to $1 billion, and the valuation of cheetahs ranges from $200 million to $500 million.

About Easter Island:

• It is a Polynesian island located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean.
• Named Rapa Nui by its earliest residents, it is one of the most isolated inhabited islands in the world.
• It is a special Chilean territory situated about 3,540 km to the west of Chile and about 1,900 km to the east of Pitcairn Island.
• It covers a total area of 163.6 sq.km.
• It is a small, triangular-shaped volcanic island. It is about 24 km in length and has a maximum width of about 12 km at its widest point.
• The island comprises three extinct volcanoes, namely Terevaka, Poike, and Rano Kau.
• It faces a tropical rainforest climate.
• UNESCO named Easter Island a World Heritage Site on March 22, 1996, and major parts of the island have been protected under the Rapa Nui National Park.

What are Moai Statues?

• Rapa Nui is famous for its large megalithic statues called moai.
• They are shaped like large human heads and erected on stone pedestals.
• They are famous for their carved heads and “Pukao,” a hat-like covering made from a soft red stone.
• Some moai stand 40 feet tall and weigh 75 tonnes.
• They were carved in volcanic stone at quarries and then moved to their current locations across the island.
• Scholars believe the Rapa Nui people built the moai between the 13th and the 16th centuries and represented their revered ancestors.
• Over 900 moai have been found on the island to date.
• What do Moais represent?
  • They were built to honor chieftains or other important people who had passed away.
  • They were placed on rectangular stone platforms called ahu, which are tombs for the people that the statues represented.
  • The moais were intentionally made with different characteristics since they were intended to keep the appearance of the person they represented.

About Online National Drugs licensing system (ONDLS) Portal:

• It is a digital, single-window platform for processing various drug-related licences in India.
• It is developed by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (CDAC) in coordination with the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO), Directorate General of Health Services, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, and State/UT Drugs Regulatory Authorities.
• It is designed to create a uniform, transparent, and accountable process for drug licensing across all States and Union Territories.
• It handles applications submitted by the applicants for issuance of manufacturing and sales licenses, including Blood Banks, and other certificates like COPP, GMP, WHO-GMP, Market Standing certificate, , and post-approval changes.
• ONDLS will help in the establishment of uniformity w.r.t. the requirement of submission of documents for different types of applications as well as issuance of licenses/permissions throughout India.

About Nesolynx banabitanae:

• It is a new species of wasp.
• It was found in the lush environs of Central Park, Salt Lake, West Bengal.
• It was named ‘Nesolynx banabitanae' in honour of Banabitan, the local name for Central Park, where the wasp was first identified.
• The discovery marks only the seventh wasp species to be identified in India.
• It belongs to the Eulophidae family, a group known for its diverse parasitic behaviours.
  • This particular species is a hyperparasitoid, meaning it parasitises other parasitoid wasps, adding a complex layer to the ecological interactions within its habitat.
  • The wasp was found to be a hyperparasitoid of the ichneumonid parasitoid Charops aditya, which itself parasitises caterpillars of the common palmfly and Common castor butterflies.

About Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) Certification:

• The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is an international non-profit organisation that sets globally recognised, science-based standards for sustainable fishing and seafood traceability.
• The MSC certification program recognises and rewards sustainable fishing practices and is helping create a more sustainable seafood market.
• Assessment: The MSC certification scheme is based on independent third-party assessments and is built on three principles: Stock health, Environmental impacts, Effective management.
• This certification is open to all fisheries that wish to voluntarily demonstrate that their operations are sustainable, regardless of their location, size and fishing gear.
• Validity: The certification is valid for 5 years, but subjected to annual surveillance audits.
• It is the only wild-capture fisheries certification based on the Food and Agriculture Organisation’s (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing and Guidelines for the Eco-labelling of Fish and Fishery Products from Marine Capture Fisheries.
• Astamudi clam Paphia malabarica is India’s first Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certified fisheries.

About Indian Radio Software Architecture standard:

• It provides a standardised software architecture defining how different radio systems communicate securely and efficiently.
• It is India’s first national specification defining a standardized software architecture for Software Defined Radios.
• Vision: To position IRSA as a global benchmark — enabling India to shape the future of SDR technology and export IRSA-compliant solutions to friendly nations.
• Key Features of Indian Radio Software Architecture standard
  • It is a comprehensive software specification for Software Defined Radios (SDR), defining standardized interfaces, APIs, execution environments, and waveform portability mechanisms, SDR Interoperability, Certification and Conformance.
• India’s IRSA now joins the elite group of global SDR frameworks — alongside the US Software Communications Architecture (SCA), Europe’s ESSOR, and NATO’s STANAG SDR standards.
• It is prepared as per Standardization of Indigenous Software Defined Radio initiative of Directorate of Standardization (DoS) under Department of Defence Production (DDP) in Ministry of Defence (MOD) India.

What is Software Defined Radio?

• SDR is a radio communication system that employs reconfigurable software-based components for the processing and conversion of digital signals.
• Unlike traditional radio communication systems, these radio devices are highly flexible and versatile.
• This is an emerging technology used to connect an ever-increasing wireless world.

About UNESCO:

• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations.
• Goal: It is dedicated to strengthening our shared humanity through the promotion of education, science, culture, and communication.
• It was started in 1945 after World War II. It took over from an older group called the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.
• It is part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group.
• UNESCO focuses on five main areas: Education, Natural sciences, Social and human sciences, Culture, Communication and information.
• Member countries: UNESCO has 194 member countries and 12 associate members. 
• Headquarter: Paris, France
• Functions of UNESCO
  • It supports member states’ efforts to eliminate illiteracy, encouraging the extension of free education, and acts as a clearinghouse for the exchange of ideas and knowledge. 
  • It also works with many other groups, including non-governmental organizations and private companies.
  • UNESCO designates and maintains a list of World Heritage Sites, which are places of outstanding universal value that deserve protection for future generations.

About Supermoon:

• A supermoon occurs when a full moon or new moon coincides with the perigee or moon’s closest approach to the earth in its elliptical orbit.
• Because the moon’s orbit is not a perfect circle, its distance from the earth varies throughout the month by around 50,000 km.
• When the moon is near its perigee and also directly opposite the sun, the full moon appears about 14% larger and 30% brighter than when it is at its farthest point.
• The term “Supermoon” was coined by astrologer Richard Nolle in 1979, defining it as a special event when a full moon is within 90 percent of its closest point to Earth.
• Impact of Supermoon
  • Supermoons influence the tides, creating perigean spring tides.
  • These tides are slightly higher and lower than usual because the moon’s stronger gravitational pull acts in concert with that of the sun.
  • These changes are typically modest, they can exacerbate coastal flooding when combined with storm surges.

About PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana:

• It was launched on February 15, 2024, and aims to provide free electricity to households in India.
• Under the scheme, households will be provided with a subsidy to install solar panels on their roofs.
• Components of PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana
  • The scheme provides for a subsidy of 60% of the solar unit cost for systems up to 2 kW capacity and 40 percent of additional system cost for systems between 2 to 3 kW capacity.
  • The subsidy has been capped at 3 kW capacity.
  • One of the components of the scheme is the development of Model Solar Village in each district of the country.
  • Under the component Incentives to Local Bodies, the scheme has provision of providing an incentive at Rs 1,000 per rooftop solar installation in the respective jurisdiction of the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) and Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs) at the Gram Panchayat level.
• Eligibility criteria for PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana
  • The household must be an Indian citizen.
  • The household must own a house with a roof that is suitable for installing solar panels.
  • The household must have a valid electricity connection.
  • The household must not have availed any other subsidy for solar panels.
• Implementing agency: It is implemented by a National Programme Implementation Agency (NPIA) at the National level and by the State Implementation Agencies (SIAs) at the state level. 
  • Under the scheme, DISCOMs are designated as State Implementation Agencies (SIAs) responsible for facilitating various measures, including net meter availability, timely inspection, and commissioning of installations. 
  • DISCOMs will receive incentives based on their achievement in the installation of additional grid-connected rooftop solar capacity beyond a baseline level.

About Karnak Temple:

• The Karnak Temple, or rather the complex of temples of Karnak in Luxor, Egypt, is one of the most impressive of Ancient Egyptian sites and once formed part of the city of Thebes.
• It is located in Karnak, Luxor Governorate, south of Egypt on the east side of the Nile River bank.
• It was built between 2055 BC and around 100 AD.
• It was built as a cult temple and was dedicated to the gods Amun, Mut, and Khonsu.
• Being the largest building for religious purposes ever to be constructed, the Karnak Temple was known as “most select of places” by ancient Egyptians.
• While the height of its importance was during the New Kingdom, and during the reigns of famous pharaohs such as Hatshepsut, Tuthmose III, Seti I, and Ramesses II, all contributed significant additions to the complex, construction continued into the Greco-Roman Period, with the Ptolemies, Romans, and early Christians all leaving their mark there.
• Together with the Luxor Temple and the Valley of the Kings, the Karnak Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage site.

About Black Sea:

• It is a large inland sea situated at the southeastern extremity of Europe.
• It is one of the marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean.
• The roughly oval-shaped body of water has a surface area of 436,000 sq.km.
• Bordering Regions:
  • West: Balkan Peninsula (Southeastern Europe).
  • East: Caucasus Mountains.
  • North: East European Plains (Russia & Ukraine).
  • South: Anatolia (Turkey, Western Asia).
• Countries bordering the Black Sea are Turkey to the south, Bulgaria and Romania to the west, Ukraine to the north, Russia to the northeast, and Georgia to the east. The Crimean Peninsula juts into the Black Sea from the north.
• Russia has the longest coastline (2,300 km), followed by Turkey (1,329 km) and Ukraine (1,282 km).
• It connects to the Aegean Sea (Mediterranean) via the Bosporus Strait, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles Strait.
• To its east, the Kerch Strait links the Black Sea to the smaller Sea of Azov.
• The Black Sea has lower salinity than the world’s oceans due to isolation from the Mediterranean.
• Major rivers flowing into it include the Danube, Dnieper, Southern Bug, Rioni, and Dniester.
• Environmental and Strategic Importance of the Black Sea:
  • World’s Largest Meromictic Basin:
    • Movement of water between the lower and upper layers of the Sea is rare.
    • This creates considerable temperature and nutrient differences between these layers, with the lower layers being absolutely free of oxygen and anoxic.
    • This complex water chemistry is fueled by extensive freshwater inputs from multiple large rivers and rainfall, with salt water exchanges with the Aegean Sea only through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles Strait.
  • Anoxic zones: One of the largest anoxic basins, meaning low dissolved oxygen in deeper layers, affecting marine biodiversity.
  • Crucial for global trade, particularly for Russia and Ukraine’s grain and energy exports.
  • NATO and Russia frequently conduct naval operations in the region.
  • Russia’s Black Sea Fleet is stationed in Sevastopol, Crimea, making the region highly militarized.
  • Key Islands: Snake Island (Ukraine); Giresun Island (Turkey); St. Ivan Island (Bulgaria).

About Tomahawk Missile:

• It is an American-made long-range cruise missile used for deep land attack warfare.
• It is launched from ships or submarines through a Vertical Launch System.
• Tomahawks were first deployed in combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. Since then, they have been used in several major conflicts, including strikes in Syria in 2017.
• Features:
  • It can carry a 1,000-pound conventional warhead or cluster munitions.
  • It is powered by a solid propellant during its launch phase. Thereafter, it is powered by a turbofan engine that does not emit much heat, which makes infrared detection difficult.
  • It flies at low altitudes to strike fixed targets, such as communication and air-defense sites, in high-risk environments where manned aircraft may be vulnerable to surface-to-air missiles.
  • It is guided by advanced GPS, inertial navigation, and terrain contour mapping.
    • This makes it highly accurate-with a margin of error of just 10 meters.
  • It is built to follow a non-linear path, reducing the chance of interception.
  • It has a range of up to approximately 2,400 km and can travel as fast as 885 km per hour.

About Bhavani River:

• It is a major tributary of the Cauvery
• It flows through the states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• It is the second largest river in Tamil Nadu.
• Course:
  • It originates from the Western Ghats in the Nilgiri Hills, located in the Tiruppur District of Tamil Nadu.
  • From there, it flows into Kerala, passing through the Silent Valley National Park.
  • After flowing through Kerala, the river turns and flows back into Tamil Nadu.
  • The river confluences with the Cauvery river at the town of Bhavani in Tamil Nadu.
  • Bhavani Sangameshwarar Temple, situated at the meeting point of the Bhavani and the Cauvery Rivers, is a prominent pilgrim center.
• Total Length: 217 km.
• It is a perennial river.
• The drainage basin of the Bhavani River spans approximately 6,200 sq.km., covering parts of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka:
  • Tamil Nadu: 87% of the basin area
  • Kerala: 9% of the basin area
  • Karnataka: 4% of the basin area
• About 90 percent of the river water is used for agriculture.
• Tributaries: The largest tributaries of the Bhavani River are West and East Varagar, which come from the Nilgiris.
• There are two major dams on the Bhavani River:
  • Bhavani Sagar Dam
  • Kodiveri Dam.

About Male Mahadeshwara Hills Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located at the intersection of the Western and the Eastern Ghats and falls in the Chamarajanagara District of Karnataka.
• It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 2013.
• It is contiguous to Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) Tiger Reserve, Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve, and the Cauvery Wildlife Sanctuary.
• It's the home of the famous Male Mahadeshwara Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, known here as Mahadeshwara.
• Male Mahadeshwara Hills is bound by the Kaveri River to the northeast and by the Palar River to the south.
• Vegetation: The forests of MM Hills Wildlife Sanctuary are principally of the dry deciduous type, degrading to scrub forest in the fringe areas, and are interspersed with patches of moist deciduous, semi-evergreen, evergreen and shola forests occurring at varying altitudes.
• Flora: Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia serrata, Hardwikia binata and Chloroxylon swietenia etc.
• Fauna:
  • It is home to several animals, including elephants, Indian bison, wild dogs, leopards, foxes, sambars, spotted deer, and many species of birds.
  • It is also a tiger habitat noted for its increasing number of tigers.

About Viridans streptococci

• It is a group of common oral bacteria.
• It can form sticky bacterial layers called biofilms deep inside atherosclerotic plaques, remaining hidden from the immune system until the moment of rupture. 
• Viridans streptococci are commensals in the gastrointestinal, respiratory and female genital tracts and are most prevalent in the oral cavity. 
• It is a group of gram-positive cocci that are commonly associated with Infective Endocarditis (IE) and typically colonize previously damaged cardiac tissue.
• Viridans Streptococcal Biofilm Evades Immune Detection and Contributes to Inflammation.
• Importantly, the bacterial clusters were often arranged in biofilms, protective layers that allow bacteria to survive unnoticed by the body’s immune system.  

How do oral bacteria trigger heart attacks?

• While the biofilm remains hidden, parts of it can break loose. Once released, the bacteria trigger inflammation in the artery wall.
• This weakens the fibrous “cap” covering the fatty plaque, making it more likely to rupture.
• Plaque rupture is a critical event that leads to clot formation and, ultimately, a heart attack.
• Could hidden dental bacteria help explain sudden and deadly heart attacks?

About New START Treaty:

• It is known as The New Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (New START).
• It is the last remaining nuclear arms deal between Russia and the United States of America, and it was extended for five years in 2021. (Extended the treaty till February 4 2026.)
• Objective: The New START caps the number of nuclear warheads well below Cold War limits.
• This treaty entered into force on February 5, 2011. 
• The treaty concerns strategic weapons: usually long-range weapons designed to influence the outcome of a war, not merely a battle, by destroying power centres, command and control facilities, or key infrastructure.
• Timeline of Treaty
  • It was signed by then-presidents Barack Obama and Dmitry Medvedev in Prague in 2010; it came into force in 2011.
  • New START replaced the 1991 START I treaty, which expired in December 2009, and superseded the 2002 Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT), which terminated when New START entered into force.
  • Both Russia and the United States announced that they met New START limitations by Feb. 5, 2018.

About Jal Jeevan Mission:

• It was launched on August 15, 2019.
• JJM is envisioned to provide safe and adequate drinking water through individual Functional Household Tap Connections (FHTCs) by 2024 to all households in rural India. 
• It is based on a community approach to water and will include extensive Information, Education and communication as key components of the mission.
• Nodal Ministry: Ministry of Jal Shakti.
• Components of Jal Jeevan Mission
  • Development of in-village piped water supply infrastructure to provide tap water connections to every rural household.
  • Bottom-up planning: Community engagement in planning, implementation and Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
  • Women empowerment: Involvement of women in planning, decision-making, implementation, monitoring, and O&M
  • Focus on future generations: Provision of tap water supply to schools, tribal hostels, and anganwadi (daycare) centers
  • Skill development and employment generation: Local people are skilled for building and maintaining water supply structures
  • Greywater management: Reuse and recycle waste water for source sustenance
  • Source sustainability: Promote groundwater recharge and water conservation
  • Water Quality: Ensure safe drinking water to reduce water-borne ailments
• Funding Pattern:
  • 50:50 between Centre and States
  • 90:10 for Himalayan and North-Eastern States.
  • In case of UTs, 100% of the funding is provided by the Central government.

About Mig La Pass:

• Mig La Pass is located on the Changthang Plateau in Ladakh.
• World Record Altitude: At 19,400 ft, Mig La Pass is the highest motorable road in the world.
• Strategic Axis: It connects Likaru–Mig La–Fukche, creating the third vital corridor from Hanle to Fukche near the Indo-China border.
• All-Weather Road: Built with advanced features to withstand harsh winters, shifting glaciers, and oxygen-thin air, making it the highest all-season road globally.

What is Project Himank?

• The Project was raised on 04 Dec 1985 at Leh for the development of road communication in Ladakh region.
• It has the distinction of supporting the Army during various operations undertaken in the region.
• The Project ensures the maintenance of communication and access to strategic areas close to the Line of Actual Control with China and had been instrumental in keeping both the Leh - Manali and the Zojila axis open during Op VIJAY.
• It has done yeoman service in restoration of road communication, clearing landslides and avalanches, constructions of bridges, snow clearance and opening of air fields.

About MY Bharat-National Service Scheme (NSS) Awards:

• It was instituted by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports in 1993-94.
• Objective: To honour and celebrate the outstanding contributions of youth in the fields of social service, community development and nation-building.
• It is given every year to recognise and reward outstanding contributions towards voluntary community service made by the Programme Officers/NSS Units and NSS Volunteers.

Key Facts about National Service Scheme:

• NSS is a Central Sector Scheme which was launched in the year 1969 during the birth centenary celebrations of Mahatma Gandhi.
• Objective: The primary objective of developing the personality and character of the student youth through voluntary community service.
• The ideological orientation of the NSS is inspired by the ideals of Mahatma Gandhi.
• It provides an opportunity to the student youth of the 11th & 12th Class of schools at +2 Board level and student youth of Technical Institution, Graduate & Post Graduate at colleges and University level of India to take part in various Government led community service activities & programmes.