About Doctrine of Severability:

• It is a fundamental legal principle that plays a crucial role in addressing the constitutionality of laws when some provisions are inconsistent with the Fundamental Rights guaranteed by the Constitution.
• In such cases, only the conflicting or repugnant part of the law will be considered void by the courts, not the entire statute.
• In simpler terms, if a specific part of a law violates the Constitution but can be separated from the rest of the law without affecting its functionality, only that problematic part will be removed, not the entire law.
• Another aspect of the doctrine of severability is that if a law combines good and bad provisions using words like ‘and’ or ‘or,’ and the enforcement of the good provision does not depend on the bad one, they are considered severable.
• The good provision will be upheld and enforced even if the bad one cannot or does not exist.
• On the other hand, if there’s a provision that can be used for both legal and illegal purposes, it is invalid and cannot be allowed even for legal purposes.
• The court will declare the entire Act as void if the valid and invalid portions are so intertwined that they cannot be separated.
• It is also called the doctrine of separability.

Landmark Cases on Doctrine of Severability:

• K Gopalan vs State of Madras: The court held that if the preventive detention provision (section 14) was removed, the rest of the Act would remain valid and effective. The violative part was separable from the valid part.
• Minerva Mills vs Union of India: The court struck down section 4 of 55 of the 42nd Amendment Act, 1976, as it exceeded the amending power of Parliament. However, the remaining provisions of the Act were upheld and considered valid.
• Kihoto Hollohan vs Zachillhu: The court declared paragraph 7 of the Tenth Schedule (inserted by the 52nd Amendment Act of 1985) unconstitutional. However, the rest of the Tenth Schedule, excluding paragraph 7, was upheld and considered constitutional.

About Vaigai Dam:

• It was built in the year 1959 across the Vaigai River.
• The dam measures 111 ft in height and the total storage capacity is 6,143 mcft.
• The dam has been the lifeline of the agricultural lands in the districts of Madurai and Dindigul. It also provides drinking water to Madurai and Andipatti.
• The dam also has a hydropower station that generates 6 megawatts of electricit
• Near the dam, the Government of Tamil Nadu has constructed an Agricultural Research Station to research on a wide variety of crops including cereals and pulses.
• There is a small beautiful garden on both sides of the Vaigai Dam called Little Brindavan that is connected by a small bridge.

Key Facts about Vaigai River:

• It is a river in Tamil Nadu.
• It is considered to be one of the most sacred and ancient rivers in India, as it is mentioned in several Tamil literary and religious texts, such as the Silappatikaram, the Thiruvilayadal Puranam, and the Thirumurugatruppadai.
• Course:
  • It originates from the Varusanadu and Megamalai hills of the Western Ghats.
  • It travels through the Pandya Nadu region of Tamil Nadu generally in the south-east direction and rarely causes floods.
  • It drains into the Palk Strait near the Pamban Bridge in Ramanathapuram district.
• Length: It is 258 kilometres
• It drains an area of 7,741 sq.km, which entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
• Vaigai gets major feed from the Periyar Dam in Kerala. Water from the Periyar River in Kerala is diverted into the Vaigai River in Tamil Nadu via a tunnel through the Western Ghats.
• Tributaries: Its main tributaries are Suruliyaru, Mullaiyaru, Varaganadhi, Manjalaru, Kottagudi, Kridhumaal, and Upparu.
• It is the major river in the fabled city of Madurai, the capital of the ancient and prosperous Pandya kingdom located in southern Tamil Nadu.

About Bhavani Island:

• It is a river island situated near Vijayawada on the Krishna River in Andhra Pradesh.
• Spread over an area of 133 acres, it is one of the largest river islands in India.
• The island has extensive forest coverage, shimmering ponds and rolling meadows.
• Initially known more for its natural beauty and abundance of flora and fauna, the island has transformed into a well-equipped tourist spot.

Key Facts about Krishna River:

• It is a river of south-central India.
• One of India’s longest rivers, it has a total length of about 1,400 km.
• Course:
  • The river rises in western Maharashtra state in the Western Ghats range near the town of Mahabaleshwar, not far from the coast of the Arabian Sea.
  • Krishnabai Temple in Mahabaleshwar is considered to be the starting point of the Krishna River.
  • It passes through the Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh and meets the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh, on the east coast.
• The Krishna River Basin extends over an area of about 258,948 sq. km, which is nearly 8 percent of the total geographical area of the country.
• It has the second largest river basin in peninsular India (after the Godavari).
• It is bounded by the Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east, and by the Western Ghats on the west.
• The principal tributaries joining Krishna are the Ghataprabha, the Malaprabha, the Bhima, the Tungabhadra, and the Musi.
• The major dams on the Krishna are the Lal Bahadur Shastri Dam (also known as Almatti Dam), the Nagarjuna Sagar, the Srisailam Dam, the Dhom Dam, the Narayanpur Dam, and the Jurala Dam.

About Mahuadanr Wolf Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Latehar district of Jharkhand.
• It is India’s first and only wolf sanctuary, dedicated to the conservation of the Indian grey wolf (Canis lupus pallipes).
• The sanctuary, spread over approximately 63 square kilometers, was declared in 1976.
• It is an integral part of the Palamau Tiger Reserve.
• It is nestled within a landscape dominated by tribal communities, more than 80 percent of whom follow “Sarna Dharma”, a nature-worshipping religion that venerates forests, rivers, and natural elements.
• The Mahuadanr landscape is a stunning mosaic of sal forests, rocky plateaus, scrublands, and small river valleys, all vital for the survival of wolves that prefer open and semi-arid habitats for denning and hunting.
• The Chechari or Mahuadanr Valley forms the core of this ecosystem.
• The sanctuary is drained by the Burha river. The river meets the Aksi River and drains into North Koel near Kujrum.
• It is also home to other species like leopards, sloth bears, hyenas, jackals, wild boars, and spotted deer.

Key Facts about Indian Grey Wolf:

• It is one of the smallest wolves in the world.
• It is a subspecies of the grey wolf found across Southwest Asia and the Indian subcontinent.
• It inhabits scrublands, grasslands, and semi-arid agroecosystems and thrives in warmer temperatures.
• Unlike other wolf subspecies, it lives in smaller packs and is less vocal, being primarily nocturnal and hunting from dusk to dawn.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Endangered (the Indian population estimated between 2,000–3,000 individuals).

About Stabilimenta:

• Stabilimenta are highly UV-reflective distinctive silk structures found in multiple spider species’ webs.
• These “decorations” may look like zig-zagging threads spanning the gap between two adjacent “spokes,” or threads arranged in a circular “platform” around the web center.
• The purpose of stabilimenta within the web is unclear.
  • They could help collect water, regulate a spider’s body temperature, or even deter predatory wasps or birds to help the arachnids collect more insects.
  • They also may help the spiders pinpoint where their prey is located by helping vibrations move throughout the web.
• Not all spiders use stabilimenta, and members of the same species may decorate their webs in different ways.

About Leprosy:

• Leprosy is an infectious disease caused by a type of bacteria called Mycobacterium leprae.
• It is also known as Hansen’s disease.
• It primarily affects the skin, peripheral nerves, eyes and other organs.
• It is a neglected tropical disease (NTD) which still occurs in more than 120 countries, with around 200 000 new cases reported every year. 
• It was declared notifiable in 2005 uniformly under the National Leprosy Eradication Programme (NLEP), Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
• Transmission of Leprosy
  • The disease is transmitted through droplets from the nose and mouth of an untreated case of leprosy, containing the causative agent, following prolonged, close contact. 
  • The disease does not spread through casual contact (like shaking hands or hugging, sharing meals or sitting next to each other). 
  • The patient stops transmitting the disease upon initiation of treatment.
• Symptoms of Leprosy
  • It usually takes about 3 to 5 years for symptoms to appear after you come into contact with the bacteria that cause leprosy.
  • The main symptom of leprosy is disfiguring skin sores, lumps, or bumps that don’t go away after several weeks or months.
  • In some cases, body parts may lose their sense of touch and pain, increasing the likelihood of injuries such as cuts and burns.
• Treatment of Leprosy
  • Leprosy is a curable disease.
  • The currently recommended treatment regimen consists of three medicines (dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine) and is referred to as multi-drug therapy (MDT).

About Sambhar Lake:

• Location: It is the largest saltwater lake located in the districts of Nagaur and Jaipur in
• This saline wetland is elliptical in shape, with a length of 35.5 km and a breadth varying between 3 km and 11 km.
• It covers an area in excess of 200 sq.km., surrounded on all sides by the Aravalli hills.
• The water from two major ephemeral streams, namely Mendha and Runpangarh, along with numerous rivulets and surface runoff feed the lake.
• It was designated as a Ramsar site in the year 1990.
• Salt Production: It is known for the production of brine/salt and also houses one of the largest salt manufacturing units in the country.
• Several migrating birds visit the waterbody during the winter. 
• Fauna: It is the most important wintering area for flamingoes (both Phoniconaias minor and Phoenicopterus roseus) in India outside the Rann of Kachchh.
• Other migratory species like pelicans, common shelduck, redshank, and common sandpiper, black-winged stilt, Kentish plover, and Ringed plover, Ruff, and Sociable lapwing are also found here.

About Exercise MILAN:

• It is a biennial multilateral naval exercise which began in 1995.
• It has since significantly expanded in scope and scale to become the largest exercise held by India.
• It was started with the participation of only four countries, viz Indonesia, Singapore, Sri Lanka and Thailand, in the 1995 edition, the exercise has since transitioned leaps and bounds in terms of number of participants and complexity of exercises.
• Originally conceived in consonance with India’s ‘Look East Policy and later expanded in ensuing years with the Government of India’s ‘Act East Policy’ and Security And Growth for All in the Region (SAGAR) initiative.

Key Features of MILAN 2026:

• Dual-Phase: Exercise MILAN’s Sea and Harbor Phases will focus on interoperability, maritime domain awareness, anti-submarine warfare, air defense, and search-and-rescue operations.
• International City Parade: It will feature contingents from participating navies, Indian Army, and Indian Air Force marching through Visakhapatnam’s iconic beachfront, the RK Beach, showcasing maritime diplomacy directly to citizens.

About Alfvén Waves:

• Alfven waves are low-frequency, transverse electromagnetic waves that propagate along the Sun’s magnetic field lines.
• It occurs in a plasma(or conducting fluid), resulting from the interaction of the magnetic fields and electric currents within it.
• These waves were first proposed in 1942 by Nobel Prize-winning physicist Hannes Alfvén, are magnetic fluctuations that transfer energy through plasma.
• Larger and more sporadic Alfven waves linked to solar flares have been detected before.
• What Researchers have found?
  • The breakthrough was made possible by the unique capabilities of the Daniel K. Inouye Solar Telescope’s Cryogenic Near Infrared Spectropolarimeter (Cryo-NIRSP).
  • This is the first time the subtle, ever-present twisting waves, thought to be powerful enough to heat the corona, have been directly confirmed.
  • The study suggests that Alfven waves may account for at least half of the energy needed to heat the corona.

About UNESCO Creative Cities Network:

• It was created in 2004 to promote cooperation among cities that have identified creativity as a strategic factor for sustainable urban development.
• It was launched to promote UNESCO’s goals of cultural diversity and strengthen resilience to threats such as climate change, rising inequality, and rapid urbanization.
• The network covers seven creative fields: crafts and folk arts, media arts, film, design, gastronomy, literature and music.
• Aim of UCCN: The network is aimed at leveraging the creative, social, and economic potential of cultural industries.
• Objectives of the UCCN
  • It allows member cities to recognise creativity as an essential component of urban development, notably through partnerships involving the public and private sectors and civil society.
  • It envisages developing hubs of creativity, innovation and broadening opportunities for creators and professionals in the cultural sector.
  • These cities have to achieve the UN agenda of sustainable development.
• Indian Cities in the UCCN: Kozhikode (Literature) and Gwalior (Music) Jaipur (Crafts and Folk Arts), Varanasi (Music), Chennai (Music), Mumbai (Film), Hyderabad (Gastronomy), Lucknow (Gastronomy), and Srinagar (Crafts and Folk Arts).

About Kunar River:

• The Kunar River is also known as the Kama River.
• It flows for about 480 kilometers (298 miles) through northern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
• This river starts high up in the Hindu Kush mountains.
• Its waters come from melting glaciers and snow.
• In Pakistan, this river is known as the Chitral River.
• It is a tributary of the Kabul River.
• The Kabul River then flows into the much larger Indus River. This makes the Kunar River part of the Indus watershed.
• Course:
  • The Kunar River begins just south of the Broghil Pass. This area is in the upper part of the Chitral District in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
  • It is very close to the border with Afghanistan, known as the Durand Line.
  • As the river flows, it passes through different regions.
  • It eventually reaches Jalalabad in Afghanistan. Here, the Kunar River joins the Kabul River.
• Tributaries:
  • On its left side, the Shishi River joins it.
  • On its right side, rivers like the Lotkoh River, the Landai Sin River, and the Pech River add their waters.

About Ayni Air Base:

• It is located in Tajikistan.
• It is the first overseas military facility operated by India.
• Located just west of Dushanbe, the capital of Tajikistan, the base had been a neglected Soviet-era facility before India stepped in to modernize it.
• India began developing the Ayni airbase in the early 2000s under an agreement with Tajikistan.
• India invested close to $100 million in the development and modernization of the airbase.
• It extended the runway to 3,200 metres and upgraded facilities for refuelling, repairs, and hangars.
• At times, India even stationed around 200 personnel from the army and air force at the site.
• India temporarily deployed Su-30MKI fighter jets and helicopters to the base roughly a decade ago.
• India withdrew from the airbase after a bilateral agreement on stationing Indian personnel at the location ended in 2022.
• Why the Ayni Airbase Mattered for India?
  • The base enabled India to maintain contact with anti-Taliban forces before 2001 and later provided a route for humanitarian aid to Afghanistan.
  • Ayni’s location gave India a unique advantage. The base is just about 20 kilometres from Afghanistan’s Wakhan Corridor, which borders Pakistan-occupied Kashmir (PoK).
  • From there, Indian forces could theoretically target key Pakistani cities such as Peshawar.
  • Ayni served as a gateway for India to enhance its presence in Central Asia, a region traditionally dominated by Russia and increasingly influenced by China.
  • The airbase was also used in 2021 to evacuate Indian nationals and officials from Afghanistan after the Taliban takeover.

About Doctrine of Party Autonomy:

• The fundamental principle governing arbitration is party autonomy.
• The freedom of the parties to choose the process of resolving disputes is known as party autonomy.
• It confers on the parties the freedom to determine laws, place of arbitration, selection of arbitrators, etc.
• Almost all international arbitration laws, rules, and conventions recognize the principle of party autonomy.
  • The concept is recognised under the New York Convention, the UNCITRAL Model Law, the Indian Arbitration and Conciliation Act, 1996, the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC) Arbitration Rules, etc.
• However, party autonomy is not unlimited, and it may be subject to certain legal or public policy constraints depending on the jurisdictions involved.
• The Supreme Court of India (SC), in the April 2021 judgment, ruled that “Party autonomy is the guiding spirit of arbitration”.
• The SC also held that such autonomy must be exercised on an equal footing, with both parties having a meaningful participation in the arbitrator appointment process.
  • Any imbalance, where one party has disproportionate control, risks undermining the arbitrator’s independence and impartiality.

About Indian Institute of Packaging (IIP):

• It is an autonomous body in the field of packaging and working under the administrative control of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.
• It was established on 14th May, 1966, with its headquarters and principal laboratories in Mumbai.
• The Institute set up its first branch office at Chennai in 1971, followed by branches at Kolkata, Delhi, and Hyderabad in 1976, 1986, and 2006, respectively.
• The main objective of the Institute is to promote the export market by way of innovative package design and development as well as to upgrade the overall standards of packaging in the country.
• The Institute is involved in various activities like testing and evaluation of packaging materials and packages, consultancy services, and research & development related to packaging.
• Besides this, the Institute is involved in training and education in the field of packaging.
• It imparts training in innovative and aesthetic packaging to the artisans, weavers, exporters, stakeholders, etc.
• It is closely working with various commodity boards and export promotion councils such as APEDA, Spices Board, MPEDA, Tea Board, MoFPI, and others.
• The Institute has linkages with international organisations and is a founding member of the Asian Packaging Federation (APF); a member of the Institute of Packaging Professionals (IOPP), USA; the Institute Packaging (IOP), UK; Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI), USA.
• The Institute organizes a biannual event i.e. International Packaging Exhibition, i.e., INDIAPACK, and a national contest for excellence in packaging, i.e., INDIASTARA.

About The Aabhar Collection:

• It is an online store on the Government e-Marketplace (GeM) portal dedicated to showcasing exquisite gift items and hampers.
• The collection, which currently features over 150 items, is part of GeM's mandate to promote social inclusion.
• Products in the collection are select One District One Product (ODOP) and Geographical Indication (GI) items.
• They are sourced exclusively from:
  • Central Cottage Industries Emporium (CCIE)
  • Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC)
  • Various Central and State Handicraft and Handloom Emporiums

Key Facts about Government e-Marketplace (GeM):

• It is the Public Procurement Portal for procurement of goods and services for all Central Government and State Government Ministries, Departments, Public Sector Units (PSUs), and affiliated.
• The portal was launched in August 2016 by the Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
• GeM endeavours to make the public procurement process transparent, efficient, and inclusive.
• The purchases through GeM by government users have been authorized and made mandatory by the Ministry of Finance by adding a new Rule No. 149 in the General Financial Rules, 2017.

About Kunming Biodiversity Fund:

• It is a Multi-Partner Trust Fund (MTPF) launched in 2021 during Part 1 of the COP 15 of Convention of Biological Diversity.
• It aims to facilitate the successful implementation of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KMGBF) at regional, national, subnational and local level.
• Initial contribution:5 billion yuan (about $200 million) from China
• It was established under the leadership of the Ministry of Environment and Ecology (MEE) of China and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), with the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).
• Focus area: It supports developing countries to accelerate and upscale their actions for the National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans (NBSAPs).

What is Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework?

• It was adopted during the 15th meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity in December 2022.
• It aims to support the achievement of sustainable development goals and build on previous strategic plans.
• It sets a bold path towards global harmony with nature by 2050.
• Goals and targets: The GBF consists of 23 targets (set for 2030) and four global goals (set for 2050) to preserve biodiversity for current and future generations.

About Kendriya Grihmantri Dakshata Padak:

• It has been instituted by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India in 2024.
• The award aims to encourage professional standards and boost the morale of officers and officials across the country.
• It is given to recognize excellent work, promote high professional standards and boost the morale of the concerned official/officer in the following four fields:
  • Special Operation
  • Investigation
  • Intelligence
  • Forensic Science
• It was created by merging the 4 previously existing MHA awards –
  • The Special Operation Medal,
  • The Medal for Excellence in Investigation,
  • The Exceptional Intelligence Efficiency Medal, and
  • The Union Home Minister's Award for Meritorious Service.
• Eligibility: It is conferred on members of the Police Forces, Security Organization, Intelligence Wing/Branch/Special Branch of State/Union Territories/Central Police Organizations (CPOs)/Central Armed Police Forces (CAPFs) and Forensic Science (Central / State / Union Territories) throughout the Indian Union.
• The medal is announced on 31st of October every year, on the occasion of Birth Anniversary of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel.

About Know Your Vehicle:

• It is a system where all FASTag users submit images of their vehicle and registration certificate to verify that the tag is linked to the correct vehicle.
• Purpose: It was implemented in 2024, in an attempt to prevent the leakages in the FASTag system.
• The whole process has to be repeated every three years to ensure no misuse.
• It is an initiative of the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI), KYV was notified by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI). 
• Know Your Vehicle Ensures
  • The 'One Vehicle One FASTag' rule: KYV supports the idea that each vehicle should have its own valid FASTag account.
  • Preventing fraud or misuse: verifying images and documents helps reduce fake tags, mis-linked vehicles.
  • Ensuring smooth toll travel: without a verified KYV your FASTag may be blocked or flagged, causing delays and extra costs.

What is FASTag?

• It is a device that employs Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology for making toll payments directly while the vehicle is in motion. 
• It is a tag used for making toll payments directly from the customers linked prepaid or savings/current account.
• It is also vehicle specific and once it is affixed to a vehicle, it cannot be transferred to another vehicle.
• FASTag can be purchased from any of the National Electronic Toll Collection (NETC) Member Banks.

About Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Location: It is located in the state of Madhya Pradesh.
• It was declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1975. 
• It is the largest wildlife sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh.
• The entire sanctuary is situated on a plateau, forming part of the upper Vindhyan range.
• It acts as a corridor for Panna Tiger Reserve and Satpura Tiger Reserve while indirectly connecting Bandhavgarh Tiger Reserve via Rani Durgawati Wildlife Sanctuary. 
• It is classified under the Deccan peninsula biogeographic region and forms part of the Ganga and Narmada basins.
• Vegetation: The forest type of this sanctuary is classified as the Tropical Dry Deciduous forest which consists of the Central Indian monsoon forests.
• Drainage: Three fourth of Nauradehi Wildlife Sanctuary falls in the Yamuna [Ganges] basin and one fourth of the sanctuary falls in the Narmada basin.
  • The north flowing Kopra River, Bamner River, Bearma River, which are tributaries of the Ken River, are the major rivers of this sanctuary.
• Flora: Teak, Saja, Dhaora, Bhirra, Ber, Bel, Mahua, Tendu, Gunja and Amla etc.
• Fauna: Tiger, Panther, Sloth-beer wild dog, blue bull, chinkara, spotted deer, sambhar etc.

About National Marine Fisheries Census, 2025:

• It is the fifth edition of the Marine Fisheries Census. 
• It is a coast-wide activity fully funded by the Department of Fisheries, Government of India.
• Nodal Agency: ICAR-Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) as the nodal agency and Fishery Survey of India (FSI) as the operational partner.
• Features of National Marine Fisheries Census 2025:
  • Coverage: 13 coastal States and Union Territories, including the Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep,
  • Time Period: The core household data collection is scheduled for an extended period of 45 days.
  • Digital Architecture: It is powered by a suite of custom-made, multilingual Android applications—VyAS–NAV(for validation of fishing villages and harbours), VyAS–BHARAT (household and infrastructure enumeration) and VyAS–SUTRA (for real-time supervision and monitoring of households and enumerators) developed by the the ICAR–Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI).
  • Expanded Socio-economic Data: For the first time, census includes crucial indicators like total family income, homeownership, outstanding liabilities, and sources of credit.
  • Focus on Vulnerability: It covers data on insurance status, major losses or disabilities, the specific socio-economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on fisher families, and the receipt of benefits from schemes like PMMSY/PM-MKSSY.
  • Institutional Mapping: New schedules focusing on Fish Farmer Producer Organizations (FFPOs) and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are introduced to facilitate collectivization and strengthen the value chain.