About Supernova:

• A supernova is the name given to the cataclysmic explosion of a massive star.
• They are the largest explosions that take place in space.
• A star can go supernova in one of two ways:
  • Type I Supernova: A star accumulates matter from a nearby neighbor until a runaway nuclear reaction ignites.
  • Type II Supernova: A star runs out of nuclear fuel and collapses under its own gravity.
• It can emit more energy in a few seconds than the sun.
• These spectacular events can be so bright that they outshine their entire galaxies for a few days or even months.
• They can be seen across the universe.
• They’re also the primary source of heavy elements in the universe.

_{How Common are Supernovas?}

• Astronomers believe that about two or three supernovas occur each century in galaxies like our own Milky Way.
• Because the universe contains so many galaxies, astronomers observe a few hundred supernovas per year outside our galaxy.

About Death Valley National Park:

• It is a desert valley located in the southeastern part of California, United States.
• It is the hottest and driest place in North America.
• It is the location of the highest temperature ever recorded in the United States.
• It is the largest national park in the continental United States.
• It is a rift valley, or a graben, that has been formed due to the sinking of a huge expanse of rock located between major block-faulted mountains running parallelly in the east and west.
• It lies in the Great Basin to the east of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, in the northern part of the Mojave Desert.
• Despite the low precipitation and extreme summer temperatures, Death Valley is home to many diverse species, several of which are endemic (found nowhere else in the world).

About Chenchu Tribe:

• The Chenchus are a food-gathering tribe primarily residing in the Nallamalai forests of Andhra Pradesh.
• They are one of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in Andhra Pradesh.
• They are also found in Telangana, Karnataka and Odisha.
• Language: They speak variants of Telugu, the Dravidian language of the region.
• A Chenchu village is known as “Penta“.
  • Each penta consists of a few huts that are spaced apart and are grouped together based on kinship patterns.
• Small conjugal families predominate, women taking equal rank with men and marrying only upon maturity.
• “Peddamanishi” or the village elder, is generally the authority to maintain social harmony in a family or a village.
• Their rituals are few and simple; religious and political specializations are slight.
• Livelihood:
  • The Chenchu live life with exemplary simplicity. Most of them still gather food from the forest and roam in it to find things to meet their needs.
  • The bow and arrow and a small knife are all the Chenchus possess to hunt and live.
  • The Chenchus collect forest products like roots, fruits, tubers, beedi leaf, mohua flower, honey, gum, tamarind, and green leaves and make a meagre income from it by selling these to traders and government cooperatives.
  • Though at times they work as forest labourers, they mostly prefer to fall back on their native skills to hunt and gather food.
  • The Chenchus do not care much for money or material wealth.
• Religion:
  • Chenchus worship a number of deities. Chenchus have also adopted certain religious practices from Hindus.
  • For ages, the Chenchus have been associated with the famous Srisailam temple (dedicated to Lord Shiva and Devi Brahmaramba) in Andhra Pradesh, situated at the heart of Chenchu land.
  • The Chenchus enjoy special privileges at Srisailam temple.

About Uchi Pillaiyar Temple:

• The Uchi Pillaiyar Temple, also known as Rockfort Temple, is located at the top of Rockfort Hill, Trichy, in Tamil Nadu.
• It is a 7th-century-CE Hindu temple, dedicated to Lord Ganesha.
• Its construction was started by the Pallavas, but it was the Nayaks of Madurai who completed the temples’ construction.
• There are three temples located closely on the rock fort:
  • Maanikka Vinayakar Temple situated at the foothill, dedicated to Lord Ganesha.
  • Uchchi Pillayar Temple at the top of the hill, dedicated to Lord Ganesha.
  • Thayumanaswamy Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, situated close to the base of the rockfort on the way to Uchchi
• This Rockfort Temple gives an aerial view of the entire Trichy City along with Srirangam Temple, River Kaveri, and River Kollidam.

About Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Kaimur District of Bihar.
• It is located in the famous Kaimur Hills range.
  • The Kaimur Hills, known for their invincibility, are home to two forts and the ancient Mundeshwari Temple, one of the oldest Hindu temples in India.
• It is the largest sanctuary in the state.
• It is bounded by the Son and Karmanasa River
• It is connected to the Bandhavgarh-Sanjay-Guru Ghasidas-Palamau tiger meta-population landscape through fragmented forest patches along the Son basin.
• The valley part is filled with many waterfalls such as Karkat and Telhar and various lakes such as Anupam Lake.
• Prehistoric rock paintings, stone inscriptions, and monuments have also been discovered here.
  • Prehistoric murals found in the "Lakhania" and other hilly regions and the prehistoric fossils of the Pre-Cambrian times in the "Salakhan" area bear testimony to the ancient origin and existence of this region.
• The Oraon tribe is believed to have originated from this region.
• Flora: A large variety of vegetation is found in the mixed, dry, deciduous forests that cover the area, the primary tree vegetation being Baakli, Mahua, Dhaak, and Bamboo.
• Fauna:
  • The wildlife comprises of Black Bucks, Chinkaras, Four-Horned Deers, Blue-Bulls, Sambar, Cheetals, Bears, Leopards, etc.
  • Apart from these pythons, Gharials/Crocodiles and different species of snakes are also found.

About Bar-Headed Goose:

• It is a migratory bird species which is known to be one of the highest-flying birds in the world. 
• Distribution: It is native to central Asia, where the species breeds, Bar-headed Geese are found in countries like India, Pakistan, Nepal, Kazakhstan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Japan and other nearby regions. 
• Habitat: It is found near water bodies. 
• Conservation Status: It is classified as ‘Least Concern’ under the IUCN Red List.

About International Fund for Agricultural Development:

• It is an international financial institution and a specialized agency of the United Nations.
• It was established as an international financial institution in 1977 through United Nations General Assembly Resolution.
• Objective: It is dedicated to eradicating poverty and hunger in rural areas of developing countries.
• IFAD seeks to empower rural people to increase their food security, improve the nutrition of their families.
• Its projects and programmes are carried out in remote and environmentally fragile locations, including least-developed countries and Small Island developing States.
• It is the only multilateral development institution that focuses exclusively on transforming rural economies and food systems.
• It is a member of the United Nations Development Group (UNDP).
• It grants support research, innovation, institutional change, and pro-poor technologies.
  • It extends two types of grants, depending on the nature of the innovation and the scope of intervention: global or regional grants and country-specific grants.
• Membership: Currently, IFAD has 180 Member States, including India. (India is a founding member of IFAD).
• Governance: Governing Council is the highest decision-making body which meets every three years.
• Headquarter: Rome, Italy. 

About Hard Corals:

• Hard corals, also known as stony corals, are marine animals that build the limestone frameworks upon which reefs form.
• They grow in colonies and are often referred to as “reef-building corals.”
• Key Features of Hard Corals
  • They composed of thousands of tiny polyps that secrete calcium carbonate.
  • Hard corals create skeletons out of calcium carbonate, a hard substance that eventually becomes rock.
  • Overtime, this rock builds up to form the foundation of a coral reef and provides a structure upon which baby corals can settle.
  • These corals depend upon tiny algae called zooxanthellae that live inside them.
    • Together, they share a symbiotic relationship (the corals provide the zooxanthellae with shelter, and in return, the zooxanthellae provide the corals with food).
  • Threats to Hard Corals:
    • Bleaching events driven by extreme heat.
    • Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease: It is spread across 30 countries which is causing unprecedented mortality of corals.
    • Losses of key herbivores such as the Diadema sea urchin have fuelled an 85% surge in macroalgae.

About Mexico:

• Location: It is located in the southern part of North America.
• Bordering Countries: It shares its land borders with the United States of America, Guatemala and Belize.
• Maritime boundaries: It is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean to the south and west; by the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea to the east.
• Capital City: Mexico City
• Geographical Features of Mexico:
  • It is a part of the circum-Pacific “Ring of Fire”—a region of active volcanism and frequent seismic activity. 
  • Peninsulas: It consists of Baja Peninsula and Yucatan Peninsula.
  • Major Rivers: Rio Grande river and Colorado river (which is shared with US)
  • Lakes: Lake Chapala and Lake Cuitzeo.
  • Major mountain range: Sierra Madre.
  • Natural Resources: Petroleum, silver, Antimony, Copper, Gold, Lead, zinc, natural gas.

About Sujalam Bharat App:

• It is a key digital initiative designed to transform rural drinking water governance.
• It has been developed with the support of Bhaskaracharya National Institute for Space Applications and Geo-informatics (BISAG-N).
• Features of Sujalam Bharat App:
  • It enables advanced geo-referencing, monitoring and management of rural water supply infrastructure under Jal Jeevan Mission.
  • It integrates critical data including water sources, asset inventories, scheme designs, operational records, water quality reports, supply metrics, and community feedback into a single platform.
  • With the introduction of the Sujal Gaon ID, every habitation will have a clear digital profile showing:
    • Its source of drinking water (local or bulk supply)
    • The nature and condition of its infrastructure
    • Supply reliability
    • Water quality status
    • O&M arrangements
  • It is integrated with PM Gati Shakti GIS which provides up-to-date geospatial mapping of rural water networks, supporting future planning, repair, and expansion with greater precision.
  • Significance: It will ensure transparency in the performance of Gram Panchayats, Village Water and Sanitation Committees (VWSCs) and service providers, thereby promoting community participation and oversight.

About Sanchar Mitra Scheme:

• It is a youth-oriented initiative by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT), Ministry of Communications.
• It is aimed at harnessing the energy and potential of young students to spread awareness about safe digital behaviour.
• Under this scheme, student volunteers, named as Sanchar Mitra, will raise public awareness about mobile safety, telecom fraud prevention, and government digital initiatives.
• They will conduct outreach in communities, schools, and public spaces to educate citizens on responsible and secure use of telecom services.
• This scheme is open to students from those technical institutes that have active telecom, electronics, computers, cybersecurity, or similar programs and have agreed to participate in the scheme.
• Sanchar Mitras will receive necessary training from experts and from the National Communications Academy-Technology (NCA-T).
  • The Sanchar Mitras will receive various training on subjects like cybersecurity, emerging technologies in the telecom sector, telecom policies and regulations, etc.
• The scheme offers top performers,
  • access, on a best-effort basis, to research and development (R&D) projects and telecom start-ups;
  • involvement in policy and standards work;
  • participation in field surveys and DoT initiatives;
  • exposure to national conferences and events.
• Recognition and incentives will be coordinated through DoT units, leveraging existing resources and partnerships.
• The scheme has been implemented across all states/UTs through the licensed service area (LSA) field offices of DoT.

About National Film Heritage Mission (NFHM):

• It was launched in 2015 by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting for restoring and preserving the film heritage of India.
• Implementation Agency: National Film Archive of India, Pune.
• Objectives:
  • Condition assessment of film reels to ascertain the remaining life of the film.
  • 2K/4K picture and sound restoration of landmark films of India and recording of new picture and sound inter-negatives of each film.
  • Digitization of films.
  • Construction of archival and preservation facilities called vaults.
  • Training and workshops for in-house capacity building.
  • Web-based end-to-end IT solution.

Key Facts about National Film Archive of India (NFAI):

• It was established in February 1964 as a media unit of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
• Its primary objective is to acquire and preserve Indian cinematic heritage.
• This includes preservation of film and non-film material, including but not limited to celluloid, stills, glass slides, posters, lobby cards, scripts, and song booklets.
• Beyond safeguarding celluloid history, the NFAI actively promotes Indian cinema.
  • They organize screenings, film appreciation courses, and research programs, fostering a deeper understanding of Indian film culture.
• It is headquartered in Pune with regional centers in Bangalore, Kolkata, and Trivandrum.
• It has been a member of the International Federation of Film Archives (FIAF) since 1969.

About Agentic AI:

• Agentic AI is an advanced form of artificial intelligence focused on autonomous decision-making and action.
• It consists of AI agents—machine learning models that mimic human decision-making to solve problems in real time.
• Unlike traditional AI, which primarily responds to commands or analyzes data, agentic AI can set goals, plan, and execute tasks with minimal human intervention.
• "Agentic" indicates agency — the ability of these systems to act independently, but in a goal-driven manner.
• At its core, this technology is built on several key components:
  • Perception: Agentic AI starts by gathering information from its surroundings and different sources, such as sensors, databases, and user interfaces.
  • Reasoning: Using a large language model (LLM), agentic AI analyzes the gathered data to understand the context, identify relevant information, and formulate potential solutions.
  • Planning: The AI then uses the information it gathered to develop a plan. This involves setting goals, breaking them down into smaller steps, and figuring out the best way to achieve them.
  • Action: Based on its plan, the AI takes action. This could involve performing tasks, making decisions, or interacting with other systems.
  • Reflection: After taking action, the AI learns from the results. It evaluates whether its actions were successful and uses this feedback to adjust its plans and actions in the future.
• Agentic AI builds on generative AI (GenAI) techniques by using large language models (LLMs) to function in dynamic environments.
• While generative models focus on creating content based on learned patterns, agentic AI extends this capability by applying generative outputs toward specific goals.
• For example, a generative AI model like OpenAI’s ChatGPT might produce text, images, or code, but an agentic AI system can use that generated content to complete complex tasks autonomously by calling external tools.

About Pallas's Gull:

• Pallas's Gull, also called the Great Black-headed Gull, is a large bird species.
• It is the world's largest black-headed gull and the third-largest species of gull in the world.
• It belongs to the family Laridae.
• Scientific Name: Ichthyaetus ichthyaetus
• Distribution:
  • It breeds in colonies in marshes and islands from southern Russia to Mongolia.
  • It is migratory, wintering in the Mediterranean Sea, the Arabian Peninsula, and India.
• Habitat: It prefers wetlands, salt lakes, lagoons, and slow-flowing rivers.
• Features:
  • It measures 55–72 cm in length with a 142 to 170 cm wingspan.
  • Summer adults are unmistakable, since no other gull of this size has a black hood.
  • The adults have grey wings and back, with conspicuous white "mirrors" at the wing tips.
  • The legs are yellow, and the bill is orangey-yellow with a red tip.
  • In all other plumages, a dark mask through the eye indicates the vestiges of the hood.
  • Pallas's Gulls feed on fish, including dead fish. They also prey upon insects, crustaceans, reptiles, other birds, and small mammals.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Least Concern

Key Facts about Udhwa Lake Bird Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Sahebganj district of Jharkhand.
• It is the state's only bird sanctuary.
• It comprises two interconnected wetlands, Pataura Lake and Berhale Lake, which are part of the Ganga River floodplain and surrounded by the Rajmahal Hills.
• It was declared a Ramsar Site in 2025.
• It supports a diverse ecosystem with over 146 species of birds, including endangered ones like the band-tailed fish eagle, lesser adjutant stork, and common pochard.
• It also hosts a variety of aquatic plants, fish, reptiles, and mammals, such as fishing cats and otters.
• The sanctuary is an important habitat within the Central Asian flyway, attracting migratory birds during the winter.

About Boreendo:

• The boreendo, or bhorindo, is a traditional musical instrument from Pakistan’s Sindh region.
• It is a 5,000-year-old musical instrument with a rich history that originates in Mohenjo Daro, part of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
• It has a hollow, spherical shape with sound holes and is made of clay that is sun-dried and kiln-fired.
• It is played by men, while women are involved in decorating the instrument with clay paint.
• The boreendo produces sound when air is blown into it, and its tone can be adjusted by tilting the mouthpiece.
• Its size affects its sound, and recent changes include extra holes to widen its musical range.
• The boreendo is mainly played at winter bonfires, weddings, and festivals.

About PM Vishwakarma Scheme:

• It is a central sector scheme launched by the Ministry of Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises.
• It aims to strengthen and nurture the Guru-Shishya parampara, or family-based practice of traditional skills by artisans and craftspeople working with their hands and tools. 
• It offers services like market linkage support, skill training, and incentives for digital transactions to artisans and craftspeople engaged in specified trades.
• Time period: Five years (FY 2023-24 to FY 2027-28). 
• Eligibility & coverage:
  • It is available for rural and urban artisans and craftsmen across India.
  • It covers 18 traditional crafts such as Boat Maker; Armourer; Blacksmith; Hammer and Tool Kit Maker; etc.
  • Aged 18+, engaged in traditional trade, no similar loans in the past 5 years.
• Key Features of PM Vishwakarma Scheme:
  • Recognition: Recognition of artisans and craftspeople through PM Vishwakarma certificate and ID card.
  • Skill Upgradation: Basic Training of 5-7 days and Advanced Training of 15 days or more, with a stipend of Rs. 500 per day;
  • Toolkit Incentive: A toolkit incentive of upto Rs. 15,000 in the form of e-vouchers at the beginning of Basic Skill Training.
  • Credit Support: Collateral free ‘Enterprise Development Loans’ of upto Rs. 3 lakh in two tranches of Rs. 1 lakh and Rs. 2 lakh at a concessional rate of interest fixed at 5%
  • Coverage: Five lakh families will be covered in the first year and 30 lakh families over five years.

About Italy:

• Location: It is located in South-central Europe on the Apennine Peninsula.
• Bordering Countries: It shares its border with Switzerland and Austria in the north, Slovenia in the northeast and France in the northwest.  
• Vatican City and San Marino are the two enclaved sovereign states within Italy.
• Its southern boundary extends into the Mediterranean Sea.
• Maritime boundaries: Italian Peninsula is bordered by the Adriatic Sea in the east, the Sea of Sicily in the south, the Ionian Sea in the southeast, the Ligurian Sea, and the Tyrrhenian Sea in the southwest.
• Capital City: Rome
• Geographical Features of Italy
  • Terrain: It is mostly rugged and mountainous and has some plains, coastal lowlands.
  • Major Rivers: Po (It is Italy's longest river) and Adige
  • Highest Point: Mont Blanc 
  • Natural Resources: Coal, antimony, mercury, zinc, potash, barite, asbestos, pumice, fluorspar, feldspar, pyrite (sulfur), natural gas and crude oil reserves.
  • Italy is volcanic in origin, and a few of its many volcanoes are active, including Sicily's Mt. Etna, Stromboli in the Aeolian Islands.

About Western Tragopan:

• It is also known as the western horned tragopan, is amongst the rarest of all living pheasants.
• Due to its beautiful plumage and large size, this bird is locally known as ‘jujurana’ or ‘king of birds’
• It is one of the rarest and most stunning pheasant species in the world.
• These birds are shy and ground-dwelling and usually active during dawn and dusk.
• It is the state bird of Himachal Pradesh.
• Distribution: It is endemic to the northwest Himalaya, within a narrow range from Hazara in north Pakistan through Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh, to the western part of Garhwal.
  • The upper part of Great Himalayan National Park’s (GHNP) forest zone holds the world’s largest known population of western tragopan.
• Habitat: It prefers a habitat of ringal (dwarf) bamboo beneath dense forest.
• Diet: It feeds mostly on leaves, shoots and seeds, but also consumes insects and other invertebrates.
• Breeding: It breeds during May to June, laying 3–5 eggs in concealed nests on the forest floor.
• Threats: Habitat loss, hunting pressure and anthropogenic disturbances which includes livestock grazing, minor forest produce collection like medicinal herbs etc.
• Conservation status: IUCN:

About Champions of the Earth Award:

• It was established in 2005 and awarded by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
• It is the UN’s highest environmental honour, recognises trailblazers at the forefront of efforts to protect people and the planet.
• Every year, UNEP honours individuals and organizations working on innovative and sustainable solutions to address the triple planetary crisis of climate change, nature and biodiversity loss, and pollution and waste
• Champions of the Earth are celebrated in four categories:
  • Policy leadership: Public sector officials leading global or national action for the environment. They shape dialogue, lead commitments and act for the good of the planet.
  • Inspiration and action: Leaders taking bold steps to inspire positive change to protect our world. They lead by example, challenge behavior and inspire millions.
  • Entrepreneurial vision: Visionaries challenging the status quo to build a cleaner future. They build systems, create new technology and spearhead a groundbreaking vision. 
  • Science and innovation: Trailblazers pushing the boundaries of technology for profound environmental benefit.

About Diving Support Craft A20:

• It is the first vessel of the indigenously designed and constructed Diving Support Craft.
• DSC A20 is the lead ship in a series of five Diving Support Craft being built by M/s Titagarh Rail Systems Limited (TRSL), Kolkata.
• Purpose: It is built for a wide spectrum of diving and underwater missions in coastal waters.
• Features of Diving Support Craft A20:
  • It has a catamaran hull design form, the ship offers superior stability, enhanced deck area, and improved seakeeping characteristics,
  • It is equipped with advanced, state-of-the-art diving systems that meet the highest standards of safety and operational efficiency.
  • Capacity: It has a displacement capacity of approximately 390 tons.
  • It is designed and built in accordance with the Naval Rules and Regulations of the Indian Register of Shipping (IRS),
  • DSC A20 will be based at Kochi and operate under Southern Naval Command.
• Significance: The Indian Navy’s capability in diving support, underwater inspection, salvage assistance, and coastal operational deployment will be substantially strengthened.

About Swasthya Portal:

• It is a one-stop solution presenting the health and nutrition status of the tribal population of India.
• It was developed under the central sector scheme “Tribal Research Information Education Communication and Events (TRI ECE)” of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
• The portal is hosted on the National Informatics Centre (NIC) Server and is maintained by the Centre of Excellence for Knowledge Management for Health and Nutrition, established by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
• It provides information and data as well as curates innovative practices, research briefs, case studies, and best practices collected from different parts of India to facilitate the exchange of evidence, expertise, and experiences.
• It has a dashboard, knowledge repository, partner segment, Sickle Cell Diseases (SCD) support corner.
  • The dashboard presents data curated from multiple sources for the high-priority tribal districts.
• Information available on Swasthya will provide insights to all stakeholders working with the tribal population of India in the areas of health and nutrition.

Key Facts about Tribal Research Information Education Communication and Events (TRI ECE):

• It is a Central Sector Scheme of the Ministry of Tribal Affairs.
• Under the scheme, financial support is provided to the research organizations, reputed organizations, research institutes, and universities where expertise exists and which have already made a mark by carrying out pioneering research in their respective field.
• The purpose of the scheme is to create replicable models in areas of education, health, livelihood, digital governance, etc.

About SAMPANN Portal:

• System for Accounting and Management of Pension (SAMPANN), is a Comprehensive Pension Management System (CPMS).
• It is an initiative undertaken by the Controller General of Communication Accounts (CGCA), Department of Telecommunications, Ministry of Communications.
• It is an online pension processing and payment system for Department of Telecommunications pensioners.
• It brings the pension processing, sanctioning, authorisation, and payment units under a common platform.
• It provides direct credit of pension into the bank accounts of pensioners.
• The system has helped the Department in faster settlement of pension cases, improved reconciliation/auditing, and ease of accounting.
• Features:
  • Direct disbursement of pension on a timely basis without intermediaries.
  • Single window system for complete pension process.
  • Online grievance management for the pensioners, reducing paperwork.
  • Tracking of pension status from home encourages transparency and accountability.
  • Faster processing of arrears and revision of pension.

About ‘Your Money, Your Right’ Movement:

• It was launched by the central government in 2025.
• It is an initiative aimed at enabling people to reclaim their unclaimed deposits, insurance proceeds, dividends, and other financial assets.
• The effort brings together government agencies, regulators, banks, and financial institutions to identify and return long-forgotten funds.
• The deposits in accounts which are not operated for a period of 10 years are classified as unclaimed deposits.
• Under the initiative, individuals need to verify if their close family members or relatives have unclaimed deposits, insurance proceeds, mutual-fund payouts, or dividends.
• To facilitate this, the government has created dedicated portals as follows:
  • Reserve Bank of India (RBI): UDGAM Portal for unclaimed bank deposits & balances.
  • Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI): Bima Bharosa Portal for unclaimed insurance policy proceeds.
  • Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI): MITRA Portal for unclaimed amounts in mutual funds.
  • Ministry of Corporate Affairs: IEPFA Portal for unpaid dividends and unclaimed shares.
• Facilitation camps are being organised in districts across both rural and urban regions of the country.
• On the national level, the campaign is coordinated by the Department of Financial Services (DFS), Ministry of Finance.

About Rhinophis siruvaniensis:

• It is a new species of shieldtail snake.
• It was discovered in Siruvani Hills, located in the Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
• The tip of its tail is dome-shaped.

Key Facts about Shieldtail Snakes:

• Shieldtails are a group of small-sized, non-venomous snakes that burrow in the soil and mostly live underground.
• They belong to the Uropeltidae family of snakes and are also called uropeltids.
• They’ve been named shieldtails because the tip of their tails looks like a disc-shaped shield.
• Distribution:
  • They are endemic to India & Sri Lanka.
  • In India, they are found in the Western Ghats and some parts of Peninsular India.

About NewSpace India Limited (NSIL):

• NSIL is a wholly owned Government of India company, under the administrative control of Department of Space (DOS).
• It is the commercial arm of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• Primary Responsibility:
  • Enabling Indian industries to take up high technology space related activities.
  • Promotion and commercial exploitation of the products and services emanating from the Indian space programme.
• The major business areas of NSIL include:
  • Production of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) through industry.
  • Production and marketing of space-based services, including launch services and space-based applications like transponder leasing, remote sensing and mission support services.
  • Building of Satellites (both Communication and Earth Observation) as per user requirements.
  • Transfer of technology developed by ISRO centres/units and constituent institutions of the Dept. of Space.
  • Marketing spinoff technologies and products/services emanating out of ISRO activities.
  • Consultancy services.

About Charaichung Royal Bird Sanctuary:

• It is Asia’s first protected bird sanctuary.
• It was established in 1633 AD by Ahom king Swargadeu Pratap Singha.
• Location: It is located at Majuli - the world's largest river island.
• Ecological Significance: It hosts varieties of indigenous and migratory birds.

Key Facts about Charaichung Festival

• It is the second edition of the festival held in Majuli, Assam.
• This festival, organised with the support of Majuli Sahitya and local residents
• It aims to urge the government to further promote Charaichung as a tourism destination.

Majuli Island:

• It is the world’s largest river island located in Assam.
• The island is formed by the Brahmaputra River and its tributaries the Kherkutia Xuti and Subansiri
• Rice cultivation is the primary livelihood for the residents of Majuli, with several unique varieties of rice, such as Komal Saul and Bao Dhan, grown in the region.
• Most of the islanders belong to three tribes-Mishing, Deori, and Sonowal Kachari.

About Deepavali:

• Deepavali, also known as Diwali, is the festival of lights celebrated across India.
• ‘Deepa’ means lamp or light and ‘Vali’ means string or row, and Deepavali means rows of lights.
• It is celebrated on Kartik Amaavasya, which typically falls in October or November.
• The fundamental philosophy of Deepavali encompasses the celebration of prosperity, renewal, and abundance for all individuals.
• Celebration of Deepavali:
  • It begins with Dhanteras, a day of auspicious beginnings when families buy new metalware or essentials that symbolise prosperity.
  • The second day marks Naraka Chaturdashi, observed with rituals and lighting lamps to dispel negativity and welcome positive energy.
  • The third day is the highlight of Deepavali- the sacred Lakshmi-Ganesha Puja.
  • On the fourth day, families and friends visit one another, exchange gifts, and reconnect, strengthening their bonds and shared happiness.
  • The celebrations conclude with Bhai Dooj, a heartfelt tribute to the bond between brothers and sisters, observed with prayers, blessings, and meaningful rituals.
• It is the 16th Indian element on UNESCO’s List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.

About Goniopora Coral:

• It is also known as flowerpot or daisy corals, is a type of hard, soft coral belonging to the Poritidae family.
• It is appreciated for its beautiful appearance as it possesses unique polyps that resemble flower petals.
• It typically inhabits lagoons and turbid reefs and considered thermally tolerant.
• Goniopora are a photosynthetic coral and derive some of their nutritional requirements from light. It can thrive in a wide range of lighting.
• Symbiotic Relationship: They have a symbiotic relationship with dinoflagellates called zooxanthellae that live in the tissues of the coral.
• Feeding: It is a predatory coral, meaning it obtains some of its nutrients by capturing small organisms in the water.

What is Black band disease?

• It is a bacterial necrotic infection that invades living coral.
• It forms a black band that crosses the infected coral, usually killing the colony.
• It is common in Caribbean reefs and rare in Australian waters.
• It is often linked to pollution or nutrient runoff.

About GlowCas9 Protein:

• It is a CRISPR protein that lights up while performing gene editing.
• It is a bioluminescent version of Cas9 that glows inside cells.
• Structure: GlowCas9 is created by fusing Cas9 with a split nano-luciferase enzyme derived from deep-sea shrimp proteins.
• Properties of GlowCas9 Protein:
  • The GlowCas9 is very stable and maintains its structure and activity at higher temperatures compared to the conventional enzyme.
  • It glows inside cells, allowing for real-time monitoring of CRISPR operations
• Working of GlowCas9 Protein:
  • The split nano-luciferase enzyme pieces reconnect when Cas9 folds correctly, producing light.
  • This glowing activity allows scientists to monitor CRISPR operations in living cells, tissues, and even plant leaves—without harming them.
• Benefits of GlowCas9 Protein
  • It can also increase the precision of Homology-Directed Repair (HDR).
    • Homology-Directed Repair (HDR) is a DNA repair process crucial for fixing hereditary mutations that are linked to genetic diseases like sickle cell anaemia, muscular dystrophy and so on.
  • GlowCas9 pioneers the emerging field of visualizing molecular gene therapy in motion.

About Deodar Tree:

• It is also known as the Himalayan Cedar.
• The name Deodar is derived from the Sanskrit word Devadāru, meaning “wood of the gods,” highlighting the tree’s cultural and spiritual importance.
• Characteristics of Deodar Tree:
  • It is native to high-altitude forests, this majestic conifer plays a critical ecological and cultural role.
  • Soil and Climate: It thrives in well-drained soils and moist temperate climates.
  • It is a large evergreen tree and has needle-like bluish-green leaves.
• Distribution: It is mainly found in the western Himalayan region.
• Applications: Traditionally, its wood has been used in temple construction, religious ceremonies, and Ayurvedic medicine.
• Threats: It faced threats from logging, habitat loss, and climate change.

About Sultanpur National Park:

• Sultanpur National Park, formerly known as Sultanpur Bird Sanctuary, is located in Haryana.
• It consists primarily of marshy lakes and floodplains.
• It includes a core area has the main Sultanpur Lake/Jheel.
  • The Sultanpur Jheel is a seasonal freshwater wetland with fluctuating water levels throughout the year.
  • This shallow lake is mostly fed by waters from River Yamuna’s Gurgaon canal and the overflowing waters of the neighboring agricultural lands.
  • It gained national attention in the late 1960s due to the conservation efforts of ornithologists Peter Michel Jackson and Dr. Salim Ali, who frequently visited the site for birding.
• It was recognised as a Ramsar site in 2021.
• It has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.
• Flora: The vegetation of this park is tropical and dry deciduous, and the flora includes grasses, dhok, khair, tendu, ber, jamun, banyan tree, neem, berberis, Acacia nilotica, and Acacia tortilis.
• Fauna:
  • It forms a part of the ‘Central Asian Migratory Flyway’ and thousands of migratory birds from the countries of Russia, Turkey, Afghanistan, and Europe visit the park during the winter months.
    • Winter Migrants: Greater Flamingos, Northern Pintails, Eurasian Wigeons, Common Teals, and Bar-headed Geese.
    • Resident Birds: Indian Peafowl, Red-wattled Lapwings, Cattle Egrets, and White-throated Kingfishers.
    • Rare/Threatened Species: Sarus Crane, Black-necked Stork, and Indian Courser have been recorded here.
  • Other faunal species, such as Nilgai, Sambar, Golden jackals, wild dog, striped hyenas, Indian porcupine, mongoose, etc., are also found here.

About Large Language Models (LLMs):

• An LLM is a type of artificial intelligence (AI) program that can recognize and generate text, among other tasks.
• LLMs are trained on huge sets of data, hence the name “large.”
• LLMs are built on machine learning: specifically, a type of neural network called a transformer model, which excels at handling sequences of words and capturing patterns in text.
• In simpler terms, an LLM is a computer program that has been fed enough examples to be able to recognize and interpret human language or other types of complex data.
• Many LLMs are trained on data that has been gathered from the Internet—thousands or millions of gigabytes’ worth of text.
• But the quality of the samples impacts how well LLMs will learn natural language, so LLM's programmers may use a more curated data set.
• LLMs use a type of machine learning called deep learning in order to understand how characters, words, and sentences function together.
  • Deep learning involves the probabilistic analysis of unstructured data, which eventually enables the deep learning model to recognize distinctions between pieces of content without human intervention.
• LLMs are then further trained via tuning: they are fine-tuned or prompt-tuned to the particular task that the programmer wants them to do.
• What are LLMs Used For?
  • LLMs can perform various language tasks, such as answering questions, summarizing text, translating between languages, and writing content.
  • Businesses use LLM-based applications to help improve employee productivity and efficiency, provide personalized recommendations to customers, and accelerate ideation, innovation, and product development.
  • LLMs serve as the foundational powerhouses behind some of today’s most used text-focused generative AI (GenAI) tools, such as ChatGPT, Claude, Microsoft Copilot, Gemini, and Meta AI.
• Since LLMs are now becoming multimodal (working with media types beyond text), they are now also called “foundation models”.
• Though they are groundbreaking, LLMs face challenges that may include computational requirements, ethical concerns, and limitations in understanding context.

Quick Definitions:

• Machine learning: A subset of AI where data is fed into a program so it can identify features in that data.
• Deep learning: Trains itself to recognize patterns without human intervention.
• Neural networks: Constructed of connected network nodes composed of several layers that pass information between each other.
• Transformer models: Learn context using a technique called self-attention to detect how elements in a sequence are related.

About Solar Storm:

• A solar storm is a sudden explosion of particles, energy, magnetic fields, and material blasted into the solar system by the Sun.

What Causes a Solar Storm?

• The Sun creates a tangled mess of magnetic fields.
• These magnetic fields get twisted up as the Sun rotates — with its equator rotating faster than its poles.
• Solar storms typically begin when these twisted magnetic fields on the Sun get contorted and stretched so much that they snap and reconnect (in a process called magnetic reconnection), releasing large amounts of energy.

These powerful eruptions can generate any or all of the following:

• a bright flash of light called a solar flare.
• a radiation storm, or flurry of solar particles propelled into space at high speeds.
• an enormous cloud of solar material, called a coronal mass ejection, that billows away from the Sun.

How Does a Solar Storm Affect?

• When directed toward Earth, a solar storm can create a major disturbance in Earth’s magnetic field, called a geomagnetic storm, that can produce effects such as radio blackouts, power outages, and beautiful auroras.
• They do not cause direct harm to anyone on Earth, however, as our planet’s magnetic field and atmosphere protect us from the worst of these storms.

 What are Solar Flares?

• A solar flare is an intense burst of radiation, or light, on the Sun.
• These flashes span the electromagnetic spectrum — including X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, and ultraviolet and visible light.
• Solar flares are the most powerful explosions in the solar system — the biggest ones can have as much energy as a billion hydrogen bombs.

What are Radiation Storms?

• Solar eruptions can accelerate charged particles — electrons and protons — into space at incredibly high speeds, initiating a radiation storm.

What are Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)?

• A CME is an enormous cloud of electrically charged gas, called plasma, that erupts from the Sun.
• A single CME can blast billions of tons of material into the solar system all at once.
• CMEs occur in the outer atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona, and often look like giant bubbles bursting from the Sun.

Key Facts about Aditya-L1:

• It is the first space-based observatory-class Indian solar mission to study the Sun.
• It was by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
• The spacecraft is placed in a halo orbit around the Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system.
• A satellite placed in the halo orbit around the L1 point has the major advantage of continuously viewing the Sun without any occultation/eclipse.
• This provides a greater advantage of observing the solar activities continuously.
• The spacecraft is carrying seven payloads to observe the photosphere, chromosphere, and outermost layers of the Sun using electromagnetic and particle detectors.

About AviSpray-10c:

• It is a compact spraying drone smaller than the current generation.
• It was developed by the AvironiX Drones, a Chennai-based deep-tech drone company focused on precision farming and defence technologies.
• It is designed to significantly reduce the cost, operational complexity, and manpower requirements of drone-based crop spraying in India.
• Unlike many agricultural drones developed primarily under laboratory conditions, the AviSpray-10c has been validated through extensive real-world deployment.
• Advantages:
  • Small-sized form factor for transport on scooters and bicycles
  • No requirement for bulky transport vehicles
  • Elimination of permanent drone mounting boxes
  • Single-operator deployment with no assistant required
  • Reduced battery count, lower upfront capital costs, and lower fuel consumption
  • Higher improvement in spraying accuracy
  • Terrain-following radar and collision-avoidance systems
  • Multiple nozzle configurations
  • Swappable chemical tanks.

About Asemonea dentis and Colyttus nongwar:

• These are two new species of jumping spiders discovered in Meghalaya.
• Both species belong to the Salticidae family, the tribe of “jumping spiders” known for their sharp vision, rapid reflexes and predatory precision.
• Unlike traditional web-weavers, these spiders stalk their prey with stealth before springing in a split-second leap.
• Asemonea dentis:
  • Only the third Indian species identified under the Asemonea genus, a group that remains sparsely documented in the country.
  • The species is named ‘dentis’ for a distinctive tooth-like projection on the male’s palpal femur.
• Colyttus nongwar:
  • It is the second Indian member of the little-known Oriental genus Colyttus.
  • It draws its name from Nongwar, the Khasi Hills village where it was documented.

About Brunei:

• Location: It is located along the northern coast of Borneo Island in Southeast Asia.
• Bordered by: Brunei is bordered by the South China Sea in the north and on all other sides by Malaysia.
• Capital: Bander Seri Begawan – the capital and largest city of Brunei.
• It is a member country of Commonwealth and ASEAN.
• Geographical Features of Brunei
  • Climate: The climate of Brunei (or Brunei Darussalam) is equatorial, i.e., hot, humid and rainy throughout the year. 
  • Mountain: Bukit Pagon is the highest point.
  • Rivers: Numerous rivers drain the land, including the Belait, Pandaruan, and Tutong.
  • Natural Resources: It is also a major oil producer in Southeast Asia.

About Buxa Tiger Reserve:

• Location: It is located in West Bengal.
• Its northern boundary runs along the international border with Bhutan.
• The fragile “Terai Eco-System” constitutes a part of this reserve.
• It serves as an international corridor for elephant migration between India and Bhutan.
• The reserve has corridor connectivity across the border with the forests of Bhutan, Kochugaon forests, Manas Tiger Reserve and Jaldapara National Park.
• Rivers: Two rivers, namely the River Raidak and the River Jayanti, flow through the forest of Buxa. 
• Vegetation: The forests of the reserve can be broadly classified as the ‘Moist Tropical Forest’.
• Flora: Some of the important species are Sal, Champa, Gamar, Simul, and Chikrasi.
• Fauna: The main species include the Tiger, elephant, leopard cat, gaur, wild boar, sambar, hog deer, Chinese pangolin, etc.

About Blue Corner Notice:

• The Blue Corner Notice is an international alert issued under Interpol’s colour-coded system, which allows member countries to share information and requests for information across borders.
• It is also known as an “enquiry notice” allows police forces in member states to share critical crime-related information such as obtaining a person’s criminal record, and location and, having his or her identity verified among others.
• Blue corner notices are issued prior to the filing of criminal charges.
• Other types of notices of INTERPOL include:
  • Red Notice: To locate and arrest individuals wanted for prosecution or to serve a sentence
  • Yellow Notice: It is issued to trace missing persons—especially children—or identify individuals unable to confirm their identity.
  • Black Notice: To gather information about unidentified bodies.
  • Green Notice: Alerts member countries about someone with a history of criminal behaviour who may pose a threat.
  • Orange Notice: Warns about a person, object, or event that could pose an immediate risk to public safety.
  • Purple Notice: Shares details on criminal methods, tools, or concealment techniques.
  • Silver Notice (pilot): Helps identify and trace assets linked to criminal activities.

What is INTERPOL?

• The International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), is commonly known as Interpol, is an international organization facilitating international police cooperation against cross-border terrorism, trafficking, and other crime
• Members: 196 member India joined Interpol in 1949.
• It has enjoyed a special role, that of Permanent Observer at the United Nations – since 1996.
• Headquarter: Lyon, France.

About African Penguin:

• The African penguin (Spheniscus demersus) is a species of penguin that lives in southern African waters.
• Breeding: The species breeds naturally in burrows dug into guano (a natural substance composed of the excrement of birds, bats, and seals), which protects them from the extreme heat of their environment. 
• Penguins can lose almost half their body mass during their annual 21-day moult.
  • During this period, the birds come ashore, shed their feathers and cannot enter the water to feed.
• Distribution: It is mainly found along the coast of Namibia and the Atlantic coast of South Africa.
• Threats: Global-warming-induced shifts in the marine and atmospheric environment are destructive to the African penguin’s habitat.
• IUCN Status: Critically Endangered.

About International Organization for Marine Aids to Navigation:

• It was established in 1957 as a Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO).
• It officially changed its status from a Non-governmental Organization (NGO) to an Intergovernmental Organization (IGO).
• Its mandate is to harmonise global maritime navigation systems, promote maritime safety initiatives, and collaborate with member states, international organizations, and industry stakeholders to address emerging challenges in maritime safety and environmental protection.
• Motto: “Successful Voyages, Sustainable Planet.”
• Governance: It is the key decision-making body of the intergovernmental organization responsible for marine aids to navigation.
• It aims to:
  • Foster safe, economic and efficient movement of vessels by improving and harmonizing aids to navigation worldwide and by other appropriate means.
  • Encourage, support and communicate recent developments; develop international cooperation by promoting close working relationships and assistance among members;
  • Enhance mutual exchange of information with organizations representing users of aids to navigation.
• Headquarters: France.