About Hudson River:

• It is a river in New York State, United States.
• It flows almost entirely within the New York state, the exception being its final segment, where it forms the boundary between New York and New Jersey for 21 miles (34 km).
• It is named after English Sea Explorer, Henry Hudson.
• It originates in several small postglacial lakes in the Adirondack Mountains near Mount Marcy (1,629 metres), the highest point in New York, and flows about 315 miles (507 km) through the eastern part of the state.
• Lake Tear of the Clouds is regarded as the source of its main headstream, the Opalescent River.
• The water from the Hudson River flows into the Upper New York Bay.
• It drains an area of 34,628 sq.km.

What is Mast Bumping?

• Mast bumping is a helicopter issue where the rotor hub strikes the mast, often in two-bladed, teetering rotor systems like Bell models.
• It happens during low-G maneuvers or abrupt control inputs, disrupting rotor balance.
• This can cause the hub to hit the mast, leading to loss of control or rotor separation, risking a crash.

About Pakke Tiger Reserve:

• It is located in the East Kameng District of Arunachal Pradesh.
• It is surrounded by the Tenga Reserve Forest to the north, Doimara Reserve Forest on the west, Nameri National Park and Tiger Reserve (Assam) on the south, and some agricultural land as well as Papum Reserve Forest on the east.
• It lies within the Eastern Himalayas foothills and is surrounded by the Kameng River in the west and north, and the Pakke River across the east.
• It covers an area of 862 sq.km.
• It has a subtropical climate with cold winters.
• The Nyishi tribe inhibits the area and plays a great role in its conservation.
• This Tiger Reserve has also won the India Biodiversity Award 2016 in the category of 'Conservation of threatened species' for its Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme.
• Vegetation: The habitat types in the park include lowland semi-evergreen, evergreen forest, and Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests.
• Flora: It consists of a wide variety of floral species such as Hoolock (a huge tree), giant bamboos, orchids, pine, oaks, walnuts, spruce, and rhododendrons.
• Fauna: Tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, jungle cat, wild dog, fishing cat, jackal, bison, elephant, sambar, hog deer, barking deer, wild boar, flying squirrel, and rhesus macaque.

About Kyasanur Forest Disease (KFD):

• KFD, also referred to as Monkey Fever, is a tick-borne viral haemorrhagic disease, which can be fatal to humans and other primates.
• It is mostly found in southern India. The disease was first reported from the Kyasanur Forest of Karnataka in 1957, hence, it is known as KFD.
• The causal agent, Kyasanur Forest Disease Virus (family Flaviviridae, genus Flavivirus), is a member of the tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) complex.
• The epidemic period usually begins in October or November and peaks from January to April, then declines by May and June.
• Transmission:
  • Hard ticks (Hemaphysalis spinigera) spread the KFD virus to people and to animals, like monkeys and rodents.
  • No person-to-person transmission has been established yet.
• Symptoms:
  • Most people with KFD have a sudden onset of chills, fever, and headache.
  • Severe muscle pain, vomiting, gastrointestinal symptoms, and bleeding can follow 3 or 4 days after symptoms begin.
  • Most patients recover one to two weeks after symptoms begin.
  • About 10 to 20% of patients experience a second wave of symptoms, including severe headache, mental disturbances, tremors, and vision problems.
  • Between 5 and 10% of people who are known to be affected by KFD die.
• Treatment:
  • There is no cure for KFD.
  • Supportive care is crucial, including fluid balance, providing oxygen, managing blood pressure, and treating additional infections.
• Vaccine: A vaccine for KFD is available and recommended in the parts of India where KFD is found.
  • The existing vaccine is a formalin-inactivated whole virus vaccine, but it requires booster doses and has shown limited efficacy in some cases.

About Mir Alam Tank:

• It is a freshwater tank in Hyderabad, Telangana, located in the southern part of the Musi river.
• It covers an area of approximately 260 acres and has a capacity of 21 million cubic meters of water.
• The tank is fed by several streams and springs that flow down from the nearby hills.
• It was the primary source of drinking water for Hyderabad before the Osman Sagar and Himayat Sagar reservoirs were built by the last Nizam of Hyderabad in 1913-25.
• History:
  • The tank was named after Mir Alam Bahadur, the Prime Minister of Hyderabad during Asaf Jah III’s reign, the third Nizam of Hyderabad state.
  • Mir Alam Bahadur is believed to have laid the foundation for the tank in 1804, which was then completed in a period of two years by
  • It was built by a French engineering company comprising 21 semicircular arches for a total area of approximately one mile.
  • It was reportedly planned by Michel Joachim Marie Raymond, the Frenchman to whom Hyderabad’s Raymond Tomb has been dedicated.

 About Mk-II(A) Laser - DEW:

• It is a 30-kilowatt laser-based weapon system designed to take down helicopters, swarm drones and radars.
• The Defence Research and Development Organisation’s (DRDO) Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS), Hyderabad, developed this system along with several academic institutions and Indian industries.
• It is one of the most potent counter-drone systems in the world due to its lightning speed of engagement, precision, and lethal action within a few seconds.
• The laser system engages fixed-wing drones from a long range and can thwart multiple drone attacks at a time, destroying surveillance sensors and antennae.
• Once a target is identified by a radar or by its inbuilt Electro Optic (EO) system, it uses an intense beam of powerful light (laser beam) to cut through the target, causing structural failures or even more lethal damage.
• The development of this laser weapon can lower the risk of collateral damage and reduce reliance on expensive ammunition during conflict.
• With this, India has joined a list of selected countries, such as the US, China, and Russia, with such capabilities.

About Electroreception:

• Electroreception is the biological ability to detect weak electrostatic fields in the environment. It allows animals to sense electric fields generated by other living organisms or environmental factors.
• This ability is primarily found in certain vertebrate species, especially aquatic animals like sharks and electric fish, but is now also observed in invertebrates like fruit fly larvae.
• Electroreceptor organs were first discovered in the 1960s through physiological studies of weakly electric fish by Theodore H. Bullock, an American neuroscientist, and French scientists Thomas Szabo and Alfred Fessard.
• In some species, electroreception is also used for social communication, indicating its evolutionary importance beyond navigation or hunting.

Key Findings

• The researchers found that only a small cluster of sensory neurons located on either side of the larva’s head were involved in this electroreceptive behavior.
• Upon closer analysis under a microscope, it was confirmed that a single neuron in this head cluster was directly responsible for detecting the electric field.
• The neuron exhibited directional sensitivity—it was inhibited when the negative electrode was in front of the larva’s head and activated when the electrode was behind, which triggered the larva to reorient and move
• By eliminating other possible stimuli (confounding factors), the scientists confirmed that the larval response was specifically due to the electric field itself, not other environmental cues.
• This makes fruit fly larvae one of the few organisms, along with sharks, bees, and the platypus, known to exhibit this rare sensory ability.
• In controlled experiments, larvae immersed in an electric field were observed to reorient their movement and navigate towards the negative electrode, indicating that they could detect and respond to the direction and strength of the electric field.

What is BatEchoMon?

• BatEchoMon stands for “Bat Echolocation Monitoring”. It is India’s first automated, real-time bat monitoring and detection system.
• The system was developed by bat biologist Kadambari Deshpande and engineer Vedant Barje under the guidance of Jagdish Krishnaswamy.
• It was designed as part of the Long-Term Urban Ecological Observatory at the School of Environment and Sustainability, Indian Institute for Human Settlements (IIHS), Bengaluru.

What Does BatEchoMon Do?

• BatEchoMon autonomously detects, records, analyses, and classifies bat echolocation calls in real-time — something that previously took researchers months to do manually.
• It includes:
  • An ultrasonic microphone using a modified AudioMoth
  • A Raspberry Pi microprocessor to process and classify calls.
  • A solar-powered battery for power and a Wi-Fi unit for data transmission.
• The device activates automatically at sunset and continuously records audio through the night.
• It uses a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) algorithm to distinguish bat calls from other sounds and to classify them based on peak frequency and call structure.
• The output includes:
  • Spectrograms (visual frequency-time plots of bat calls),
  • Audio files of bat calls,
  • Species-specific statistical data showing call frequency and timing

About the Mission

• The European Space Agency (ESA) is launching a pioneering mission called the Biomass Mission, scheduled for April 29, 2025.
• The satellite will be launched aboard a Vega C rocket from Korou Spaceport in French Guiana.
• It will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of approximately 666 km, ensuring the satellite observes the Earth under consistent lighting conditions.

Objective and Significance

• The Biomass Mission aims to generate the first-ever global measurements of forest biomass, providing data that is currently severely lacking at a planetary scale.
• The mission seeks to map the world’s forests and understand how they are changing over time, contributing to the study of the global carbon cycle.
• Forests are a vital component of the carbon cycle, acting as carbon sinks. They currently store 861 gigatonnes of carbon in vegetation and soils and absorb around 16 billion metric tonnes of CO₂ annually.
• By tracking changes in forest carbon content, the mission will improve our understanding of carbon emissions, deforestation, and climate change.
• The mission responds to urgent concerns: in 2023 alone, the planet lost 3.7 million hectares of tropical forests—equivalent to losing 10 football fields of forest per minute, contributing to about 6% of global CO₂ emissions.

Key Technologies Used

• The satellite is equipped with a 12-meter antenna and utilizes Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) to map the Earth's surface.
• Notably, it is the first satellite in space to use a P-band SAR, which is a long-wavelength radar system capable of penetrating dense forest canopies.
• This advanced technology allows measurement of carbon stored both in the canopy and on the forest floor, offering insights into how much biomass and hence, carbon is present.
• Since longer wavelengths penetrate more deeply than shorter ones, the P-band SAR is uniquely suited for generating 3D images of forests, from the canopy down to the tree roots.

What is Signet Ring Cell Carcinoma (SRCC)?

• Signet Ring Cell Carcinoma (SRCC) is a rare and aggressive subtype of colorectal cancer (CRC) that originates in the colon or rectum.
• It is named for the signet ring-like appearance of its cells under a microscope, caused by mucus pushing the nucleus to one side.
• SRCC is known for its rapid spread, resistance to conventional therapies, and late-stage diagnosis, making it one of the deadliest colon cancer variants.

What Are the Innovative Methods Introduced?

• The researchers developed Patient-Derived Organoids (PDOs) and Patient-Derived Xenografts (PDXs):
  • PDOs are miniature 3D tumour models grown from human cancer tissues in lab dishes.
  • PDXs involve implanting human tumour cells into mice, enabling the tumour to grow in a living system.
• These lab-grown models closely mimic the molecular behaviour of actual human SRCC tumours.
• This method forms one of the first living biobanks of SRCC models, enabling researchers to study the disease more precisely and test treatments in a controlled environment.
• A major difficulty in treating SRCC is its tendency to spread to the peritoneum, the lining of the abdominal cavity, which worsens the prognosis and reduces treatment effectiveness.
• While SRCC makes up only 1% of all CRC cases globally, in India, it affects a disproportionately larger number of patients — nearly 10 times more, often in younger individuals.

About Africa India Key Maritime Engagement (AIKEYME)

• AIKEYME is a large-scale multilateral maritime exercise between India and African nations, inaugurated in April 2025 at Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.
• Co-hosting Nations: India and Tanzania jointly host the exercise, reflecting their shared strategic interests in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).
• 11 nations are participating: India, Tanzania, Comoros, Djibouti, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, and South Africa.
• The primary aim is to develop cooperative solutions to regional maritime challenges and to enhance naval interoperability and coordination between partner navies.
• Strategic vision: The exercise aligns with India’s SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region) vision and MAHASAGAR (Mutual and Holistic Advancement for Security and Growth Across Regions) initiative, which the PM unveiled in March 2025.
• Indian naval participation: INS Chennai (Destroyer), INS Kesari (Landing Ship Tank), and INS Sunayna are deployed as part of the engagement.
• IOS Sagar initiative: INS Sunayna is sailing under the Indian Ocean Ship (IOS) SAGAR mission, involving joint surveillance and goodwill port calls in Tanzania, Mozambique, Mauritius, Seychelles, and the Maldives.
• Exercise duration: Conducted over six days (April 13–18, 2025), divided into harbour and sea phases.

About Kathak

• The term Kathak is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Katha’, meaning ‘story’.
• Nature of Performance: It originated as a temple performance where stories from scriptures were enacted and evolved into a court dance during the Mughal period.
• Major gharanas (schools): Prominent gharanas include the Lucknow, Jaipur, and Benaras
• Dance style: Focus is on footwork (Tatkaar), pirouettes (Chakkars), mudras, and facial expressions. Dancers wear ankle bells (ghungroos) and perform with graceful yet intricate movements.
• Musical association: It is the only classical dance form linked to Hindustani (North Indian) music.
• Patronage: Wajid Ali Shah, the last Nawab of Awadh, played a major role in its artistic development and patronage.
• Prominent exponents: Key figures include Birju Maharaj, Sitara Devi, Shovana Narayan, and Aditi Mangaldas.

Kumudini Lakhia Contributions

• Kumudini Lakhia challenged the classical notion that Kathak must always revolve around storytelling based on mythological or literary themes like Radha-Krishna or Shiva-Parvati.
• She believed in “art for art’s sake”, focusing on movement, rhythm, and form over narrative content.
• Over a career spanning seven decades, she transformed Kathak from a solo narrative-based art form to a group ensemble format, incorporating contemporary themes and abstract concepts.
• Awards and Recognition: She was conferred Padma Shri in 1987, Padma Bhushan in 2010, and Padma Vibhushan in 2024 for her outstanding contribution to Indian classical dance.

Why in the News?

• This commitment was reaffirmed during a meeting between External Affairs Minister S. Jaishankar and Italian Deputy Prime Minister Antonio Tajani held in April 2025.
• The discussions prominently focused on advancing ties under the Joint Strategic Action Plan (JSAP) 2025–2029, which serves as a structured roadmap to diversify bilateral cooperation.
• The JSAP was jointly announced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Italian Prime Minister Giorgia Meloni during their meeting in November 2024 in Rio de Janeiro.

About the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEEC)

• IMEEC is a multimodal connectivity initiative aiming to improve infrastructure for trade and transport between India, the Middle East, and Europe.
• It was officially launched through a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed by India, the European Union, France, Germany, Italy, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and the US during the G20 Summit in New Delhi (2023).
• IMEEC is a part of the broader Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII), which was initially announced at the G7 Summit 2021 in the UK.
• It is widely regarded as a strategic counter to China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
• Structure of IMEEC: IMEEC will comprise two main corridors:
  • Eastern Corridor: Connecting India to the Gulf region.
  • Northern Corridor: Connecting the Gulf to Europe.

About Microplastics

• Definition: They are defined as plastic particles up to 5 millimetres in diameter, while nanoplastics are even smaller, measuring less than 1,000 nanometres.
• Types: Primary microplastics (e.g., cosmetics, microfibers) and secondary microplastics (formed from the breakdown of larger plastics).
• Environmental entry: Through product use, abrasion, or breakdown in natural settings.
• Persistence: Microplastics are non-biodegradable, mobile, and accumulate in ecosystems.
• Impact on Organisms: It can be ingested by marine and terrestrial organisms, causing toxicity and bioaccumulation.
• Chemical risk: Microplastics can carry pollutants and toxic chemicals, further endangering ecological and human health.

How Microplastics Enter Plants

• The study demonstrated that plastic particles entered leaves via multiple pathways, primarily through surface structures such as stomata and the cuticle.
  • Stomata are tiny pores formed by specialised cells on leaves that regulate gas exchange.
  • The cuticle is a wax-coated protective membrane on leaf surfaces that is particularly conducive to absorbing airborne particles like microplastics.
• Once inside, microplastics moved between plant cells and could accumulate in tiny, hair-like structures called trichomes on the surface of leaves.
• These particles were also found to travel through the plant’s water and nutrient transport systems, reaching other tissues, although trichomes acted as “sinks” by trapping many external particles and thereby limiting their movement to roots.

Ecological and Health Implications

• The study highlights significant ecological and public health risks due to atmospheric plastic pollution, as micro- and nanoplastics bioaccumulate through the food chain.
• Despite these findings, the long-term impact on human health remains unclear, prompting a call for further investigation into:
  • The extent of dietary exposure,
  • The absorption efficiency of microplastics in the human digestive system,
  • And the potential for plastic particles to reach internal organs.

About Carbon Tax

• A Carbon Tax is an environmental tax levied on the carbon content of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas.
• The objective is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by creating a financial disincentive for pollution and encouraging clean energy alternatives.
• It is calculated based on the amount of CO₂ or other GHGs emitted and promotes a market-based climate solution.

Types of Carbon Tax

• Emissions tax: Tax on total GHG emissions, based on the carbon content of fuels used.
• Energy tax: Levied on fossil fuel consumption, calculated from carbon or energy usage.
• Cap-and-Trade System: Sets a cap on emissions; permits traded in a carbon market to incentivise reduction.
• Border tax adjustment: Applies carbon tax on imported goods based on emissions during production to prevent carbon leakage.

Carbon Tax in India

• India currently does not have a nationwide carbon tax, but there have been proposals to introduce one.
• In 2015, India proposed a carbon tax of INR 50 per metric ton on coal production/import, but it remains unimplemented.
• Some states, like Tamil Nadu, have introduced state-level carbon levies, particularly on coal used in electricity generation.
• India promotes clean energy and emission reductions through initiatives like:
  • National Clean Energy Fund
  • National Solar Mission
  • Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC)

About the International Maritime Organization (IMO)

• The IMO is a United Nations specialised agency responsible for the safety, security, and environmental performance of international shipping.
• It contributes to SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use oceans, seas, and marine resources.
• While the IMO sets global maritime rules, their enforcement depends on member states converting them into national laws.
• The IMO also deals with legal matters like liability, compensation, and maritime traffic facilitation.

What is the rt-LAMP Assay?

• The rt-LAMP assay is a molecular diagnostic tool similar to GeneXpert and Truenat, providing high sensitivity and specificity. It can detect TB DNA even when only 10 copies per microlitre are present, enabling early-stage diagnosis.
• Unlike RT-PCR, which requires three different temperature cycles, rt-LAMP works at a single temperature, simplifying the testing process.
• The test uses six primers for DNA amplification (compared to two in RT-PCR), ensuring faster and more specific detection.
• The researchers used a fluorescent dye (Syto 16)—commonly used in cell biology—which does not inhibit the reaction, solving the long-standing issue of false negatives in earlier LAMP tests.
• Results can be detected in 10–20 minutes, significantly reducing diagnostic time compared to RT-PCR.

Regulatory Status

• The rt-LAMP assay has been licensed to the industry for production.
• It has received approval from the Central Drugs Standard Control Organisation (CDSCO).
• The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) is currently validating the technology.
• The World Health Organization’s Health Technology Access Pool (HTAP) also evaluates the test, pending ICMR validation.

Significance for India’s TB Control Strategy

• As of 2023, around 79% of presumptive TB cases in India were still being diagnosed using sputum smear microscopy, while only 21% used molecular tests.
• Despite the rise in molecular testing labs (from 5,090 in 2022 to 6,496 in 2023), India still falls short of the targets set under the National Strategic Plan (2017–2025) to reduce reliance on smear microscopy.
• The indigenous rt-LAMP assay could help bridge the diagnostic gap, by providing a low-cost, rapid, scalable, and accurate alternative to outdated smear techniques.
• It supports the National TB Elimination Programme (NTEP) by enabling faster case detection, reducing disease transmission, and improving public health outcomes.

About Phawngpui National Park:

• Phawngpui National Park, also known as the Blue Mountain National Park, is located in the southeastern corner of Mizoram, near the India-Myanmar border.
• It is the highest peak in the state, rising to an altitude of 2,157 meters above sea level.
• It overlooks the Chhimtuipui River and the hill ranges of Myanmar.
• The national park covers an area of 50 sq.km.
• The local Mizo people consider the national park as a sacred place, and believe that it is inhabited by the spirits of their ancestors.
• The national park is often enveloped by clouds, and appears blue from a distance.
• Flora: The thick forests are interspersed with small patches of grassy glades and are replete with diverse fauna typical of Montane Subtropical forests including oak, rhododendrons, and rare species of bamboos.
• Fauna: It is home to an amazing variety of birdlife, including the rare Blyth’s Tragopan, Dark Rumped Swift, and Hume’s Pheasant, the Mizoram state bird, and endangered mammals like the Slow Loris, Tiger, Leopard, Leopard Cat, Serow, Goral, Asiatic Black Bear, Stump-tailed Macaque, and Capped Langur.

About Saras Mk2:

• It is a 19-seater, multi-purpose civilian aircraft.
• It is the first Indian multi-purpose civilian aircraft in the light transport aircraft category.
• It is being developed by National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL), Bengaluru, in collaboration with the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
• It is an upgraded version of the Saras Mk 1.
• It can be used for multiple purposes, including for medical emergencies or in the event of natural disasters.
• It can also help in transporting passengers from Tier-1 cities to Tier-2 and Tier-3 cities.
• Features:
  • It will be a 7.5-ton aircraft and will have an endurance of 6 hours with a service ceiling of 29,000 ft.
  • It will have a maximum range of 775 km with a max load of 19 passengers and 2450 km with 7 passengers.
  • Its maximum cruise speed will be 500 kmph and stall speed 185 kmph.
  • The take-off distance for SARAS MK2 is going to be 790m, landing distance of 740m.
  • The aircraft will be powered by 2 Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-67A turboprop engines.

About Ramgarh Lake:

• It is situated near the Jamwa Ramgarh subdivision of the Jaipur district in the Indian state Rajasthan.
• It is a man-made water body created by forming an embankment on the forested hills.
• Erstwhile Jaipur ruler Sawai Ram Singh II had built the Ramgarh lake in 1876 to provide relief to the inhabitants of the region.
• It lies at a distance of 32 kilometres from Jaipur city and encompasses an area of about 15.5 sq.km.
• It measures 2 kilometres in width and 4 kilometres in length.
• Once, the lake served as the main source of water supply for the city of Jaipur.
• In the present time, the four rivers, Roda, Banganga, Tala, and Madhoveni, which used to bring water to the lake, have gone dry due to the deforestation and mining activity carried out in the catchment area.
• Ramgarh Lake has a historical record of hosting a rowing event during Asian Games of 1982.
• Jamwa Mata temple is situated at a downward course of Ramgarh Lake.
• The Polo Ground at Ramgarh, that sits in the middle of the Ramgarh Lake and the Aravalli Hills, is regarded as one of the best of its kind in the country.
• The thick forest near Ramgarh Lake is the abode to many wildlife species such as nilgai, chital, and lion.
• The region was notified as a wildlife sanctuary in the year 1982 by the Government of India.

About Bullet Curtain:

• It is the world’s first close-in anti-drone barrage weapon.
• It is capable of countering a broad range of low-flying aerial threats including rockets, helicopters, missiles, and most notably, drone swarms.
• It has been made by China's state-run defence firm Norinco.
• The system was inspired by Metal Storm, which is a rapid-fire weapon concept jointly developed by Australia and the United States in the late 1990s.
• Breaking from convention:
  • Conventional anti-air systems typically rely on “point-to-point” interception, aiming directly at incoming threats.
  • By allowing multiple guns to fire together, the Bullet Curtain system creates a plane of fire that increases the probability of intercepting fast, unpredictable targets.
• Bullet Curtain Features:
  • The system uses a “plane-to-point” interception model, which forms a wall of projectiles to blanket incoming targets with overlapping firepower.
  • The system reportedly uses a 4x4 tight arrangement of 35mm gun barrels for various types of ammunition to deliver a high rate of fire while maintaining quick reload capabilities.
  • It fires 35mm advanced hit efficiency and destruction (AHEAD) ammunition that spits hundreds of sub-projectiles each to form a barrage against drones.
  • The system reportedly integrates radar, an optical detection system, a fire-control system, an integrated management system, and ammunition with the platform.
  • The system has been fitted on a 6x6 truck and configured as a road-mobile air-defence cover embedded in mechanised units.
  • Its modular design means it can also be integrated with various platforms, including wheeled and tracked armoured vehicles, naval ships, and fixed installations, allowing rapid deployment across different combat scenarios while staying compatible with existing military infrastructure.
  • A computer-based system adjusts the volume and type of fire depending on the target’s nature, allowing dynamic threat engagement.

 About Typhloperipatus williamsoni:

• It is an ancient velvet worm species (phylum Onychophora), one of the oldest living fossils in the world.
  • Onychophora is a very old group, easily older than 350 million years.
  • It has only two families and not more than 200 species. The diversity is very less.
  • These were evolving almost simultaneously with dinosaurs. When the mass extinction happened, probably a lot of them were wiped out.
  • What we see today is mostly those species which escaped extinction.
• T. williamsoni was rediscovered after 111 years from the Siang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.
  • T. williamsoni was first collected during the “Abor expedition” by Stanley Kemp, the erstwhile superintendent of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, and his team in December 1911 in Siang Valley.
  • Since Kemp’s discovery, there have been no documented records of it from India.
• The molecular data from williamsoni indicated that South Asian onychophoras split from their neotropical (Central and South America), including southern parts of Mexico and the Caribbean and only African relatives around 237 million years ago.
• Interestingly, the Asian onycophora were found to have no relatives in Australian onychophoras.
• This is unusual given that invertebrates found in Southeast Asia and India are usually related to those in Australia.
• Asian Onychophora is one of the few exceptions to this relationship.

What are Neutrinos?

• Neutrinos are electrically neutral subatomic particles that are produced in processes like radioactive decay and nuclear reactions, including those occurring in the sun and stars.
• They are one of the fundamental particles in the Standard Model of particle physics, but their mass remains unknown.
• Unlike other fundamental particles, neutrinos are extremely lightweight, with masses less than a millionth that of an electron.

What is the KATRIN Experiment?

• KATRIN stands for Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino experiment, and it is located in Karlsruhe, Germany.
• Its primary aim is to precisely measure the mass of the electron antineutrino, a type of neutrino produced in beta decay.
• The experiment focuses on studying the decay of tritium, a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, which emits both an electron and an electron antineutrino.
• The energy of the emitted electron is affected by the mass of the neutrino — hence, measuring electron energies helps infer the upper limit of the neutrino’s mass.

Recent Findings

• In its latest analysis, KATRIN has reduced the upper limit of the neutrino mass to less than 0.45 electron volts (eV).
• This is a significant improvement over its earlier result and represents a nearly 50% reduction in the previously estimated maximum value.
• The data is based on the precise measurement of energies from 36 million electrons produced in tritium decay.

Key Points about ENSO and its Phases

• ENSO (El Niño Southern Oscillation): ENSO is a significant climate phenomenon that involves changes in sea-surface temperatures (SST) in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. It affects various global weather patterns, including wind behavior, atmospheric pressure, and rainfall distribution.
  • El Niño: Warmer-than-usual sea surface temperatures, associated with unusual global warming patterns.
  • La Niña: Cooler-than-usual sea surface temperatures, often linked with colder atmospheric patterns and stronger trade winds.
  • ENSO-Neutral: Neither El Niño nor La Niña dominates the climate system, making forecasts less certain, but often acting as a transitional phase between the two extreme conditions.

 ENSO-Neutral Phase

• The ENSO-neutral phase is typically seen as a transition period between El Niño and La Niña.
• In March 2025, NOAA scientists observed that SST anomalies in the Niño-3.4 region had reached -0.01°C, much warmer than the La Niña threshold of -0.5°C.
• The cool waters that had characterized La Niña in previous months have now faded.
• Despite the presence of some La Niña-like atmospheric conditions (like strong trade winds), the lack of cool SSTs has led to the declaration of ENSO-neutral conditions.
• Temperature and Atmospheric Changes: The shift to neutral conditions occurred as warm waters spread westward across the eastern Pacific. Simultaneously, the pool of cool water beneath the surface began to shrink.
  • Although signs of La Niña (like strong trade winds) persisted for a short time, the absence of cold surface waters meant the system no longer met the criteria to be classified as La Niña.

About Asiatic Lions

• The Asiatic lion, also known as the Persian Lion or Indian Lion, belongs to the subspecies Panthera leo persica.
• It is found exclusively in India, specifically in the Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat.
• Once widespread across West Asia and the Middle East, the Asiatic lion has now become extinct in these regions, with India being the last refuge of this species.
• Current distribution: The latest lion census (2020) by the Gujarat Forest Department records 674 lions spread across 30,000 sq km in nine districts and 53 talukas of Saurashtra.
  • Due to sustained conservation, the IUCN moved the Asiatic lion from “Critically Endangered” (1990s) to “Endangered” (since 2008) on its Red List.

Asiatic vs African Lions

About Gir and Girnar

• Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary was established in 1965 over 1,412 sq km, with an additional buffer zone of 470 sq km, totalling 1,882 sq km of protected habitat.
• Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary, established in 2008, is located in the Junagadh district and covers the Girnar hills of the Saurashtra region.
• It comprises dry deciduous forests, with species like teak, dhak, and acacia, and supports a diverse fauna, including Asiatic lions, leopards, Chinkara, Chousingha, and over 300 species of birds.
• The Girnar Sanctuary functions as an extension habitat for lions beyond Gir National Park.

Background: Beijing Declaration & Platform for Action (1995)

• It was a landmark global framework adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women by the United Nations.
• It identified 12 critical areas for action, including poverty, education, health, violence against women, and decision-making.
• The Declaration emphasized women’s rights as human rights and promoted legal and social reforms to achieve gender equality.
• India’s Progress: India, as a signatory, has enacted several laws including the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (2005) and the POSH Act (2013) for workplace safety. However, their implementation remains inconsistent, revealing a gap between legislation and lived reality.

India’s International Commitments

• India is a signatory to several international frameworks that mandate gender equity and climate justice, including:
  • Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948),
  • ICCPR (1966),
  • CEDAW (1979),
  • UN Convention Against Corruption (2003),
  • Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, and
  • Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action (1995).

About the Index of Industrial Production (IIP)

• The Index of Industrial Production (IIP) is a key statistical tool used to measure the short-term changes in the volume of production in Indian industries.
• It provides insight into the growth or contraction of industrial activity over a given period, making it a crucial economic performance indicator.
• The IIP is published by the Central Statistics Office (CSO), which is part of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).
• The current base year for the index is 2011–12. This base year was adopted to reflect modern industrial structure and production patterns, following periodic revisions from earlier base years such as 1937, 1946, 1951, 1956, and so on.

Sectoral Composition of IIP (Weight-wise)

• Manufacturing: 63% of total weight (809 items)
• Mining: 37% (29 items)
• Electricity: 99% (1 item)

Sectoral Growth (Year-on-Year in February)

• Mining: Slowed sharply to 6%, down from 8.1% in Feb 2024.
• Manufacturing: Grew at 9%, lower than 4.9% a year ago.
• Electricity: Output growth dropped to 6% from 7.6% in Feb 2024.

Eight Core Industries (Weight in IIP: 40.27%)

• Listed in decreasing order of weightage:
  • Refinery Products
  • Electricity
  • Steel
  • Coal
  • Crude Oil
  • Natural Gas
  • Cement
  • Fertilisers.

About Amrit Bharat Station Scheme:

• It is an ongoing Indian Railways mission launched in February 2023.
• It aims to enhance and modernize railway stations throughout the Indian Railways network.
• The scheme currently intends to upgrade and modernize a total of 1,300 stations across the Indian Railway system.
• It envisages the development of stations on a continuous basis with a long-term approach.
• It involves the preparation of Master Plans and their implementation in phases to improve the amenities at the stations, like improvement of station access, circulating areas, waiting halls, toilets, lift/escalators as necessary, cleanliness, free Wi-Fi, kiosks for local products through schemes like ‘One Station One Product’, better passenger information systems, executive lounges, nominated spaces for business meetings, landscaping etc.
• The scheme will cater to each station according to its unique requirements, and also draw inspiration from the local culture, heritage, and architecture of the region in the redesign of every station.
• The scheme emphasizes upgrading station structures, integrating stations with the surrounding city areas on both sides, promoting multimodal connectivity, providing facilities for individuals with disabilities (Divyangjans), implementing sustainable and eco-friendly solutions, introducing ballastless tracks, incorporating 'Roof Plazas' when required, and considering the feasibility and phasing of improvements.
• The ultimate goal is to transform these stations into vibrant city centres over the long term.

About Modernization of Command Area Development and Water Management (M-CADWM) Scheme:

• It is a sub-scheme of the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY).
• This initiative, with an initial outlay of ₹1,600 crore, is set to run from 2025-2026 and is designed to significantly enhance the irrigation infrastructure in India.
• The key goal of the M-CADWM is to modernise the irrigation water supply network, ensuring that irrigation water reaches the designated farming clusters from existing canals or other water sources.
• This will help farmers with small land-holdings, by improving water-use efficiency through the use of advanced technologies such as SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) and the Internet of Things (IoT).
• These technologies will assist in better water accounting and management, directly contributing to increased Water Use Efficiency (WUE) at the farm level.
• A key feature of the M-CADWM scheme is the implementation of underground pressurised, piped irrigation systems, extending up to 1 hectare per farm.
• This infrastructure will be developed to enhance micro-irrigation practices, enabling farmers to use water more effectively and ultimately increasing agricultural production and productivity.
• In addition to modernising the irrigation systems, the scheme aims to build sustainable farming practices.
  • It proposes the Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) to Water User Societies (WUS), empowering these communities to manage irrigation assets independently.
  • To ensure long-term success, these societies will receive support for the next five years, helping them connect with Farmer Producer Organisations (FPOs) or Primary Agricultural Cooperative Societies (PACS).
  • This is expected to profitably improve sustainable water management
• The M-CADWM scheme also seeks to make agriculture more appealing to youth by encouraging the adoption of modern irrigation techniques, creating new opportunities for young people in the agricultural sector.

About Long-Range Glide Bomb (LRGB) 'Gaurav':

• "Gaurav" is a 1,000-kg class glide bomb designed and developed indigenously by the DRDO.
  • Unlike conventional bombs that fall vertically after release, glide bombs are equipped with fins or wings that allow them to glide forward through the air toward their target.
  • Importantly, a glide bomb does not have an engine. Instead, it relies on the momentum from being dropped from a high-flying aircraft and uses aerodynamic surfaces to cover long distances.
  • This enables the launching aircraft to stay away from the enemy’s radar and air defence systems, thereby reducing risk to pilots while still achieving accurate strikes.
• Developed by DRDO’s Research Centre Imarat (RCI) in Hyderabad, the Gaurav project involved active collaboration with Indian private sector partners such as Adani Defence Systems & Technologies, Bharat Forge, and several Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).
• Features:
  • With a diameter of 0.6 metre, it is four metre long and has a wingspan of 3.4 metre.
  • It is an air-launched glide bomb capable of striking targets at long distances.
  • When launched from high altitudes—typically over 40,000 feet—the Gaurav can glide to a range of over 100 kilometres.
  • It is equipped with a dual guidance system that combines an Inertial Navigation System (INS) with satellite-based GPS.

About Mahadayi River:

• The Mahadayi River, also called Mandovi or Mhadei, is a rain-fed river that is shared between Karnataka and Goa for their water needs.
• Course:
  • It originates from Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary in the Western Ghats in Karnataka.
  • It travels briefly through Maharashtra before entering Goa and emptying into the Arabian Sea at Panaji, Goa.
• About 76 km of Mahadayi's 111-km length runs through Goa.
• Tributaries: It has several tributaries, namely Rogaro, Kushavati, Nanorem, Nanuz, Valvota, and Mapusa.
• Panaji, the state capital, and the town of Old Goa are situated on the left bank of the Mandovi River.
• The Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary is located on the island of Chorao in the Mandovi River.

What is the Kalasa-Banduri project?

• The project involves the construction of dams and a canal system to divert water from the Mahadayi River, located in Goa, to the Malaprabha River (a tributary of the Krishna river) basin in Karnataka.
• The main goal of the project is to meet the drinking water needs of the districts of Belagavi, Dharwad, Bagalkot, and Gadag in Karnataka.
• The project was proposed by the Karnataka Government in the 1980s, but faced opposition from the state of Goa.

About Mount Spurr:

• It is an ice- and snow-covered active stratovolcano complex located in the north-central Cook Inlet region about 100 kilometers west of Anchorage, Alaska, United States.
• The volcano sits at the south edge of a break in the Alaska Range.
• It is composed mostly of andesite.
• It consists of a breached stratovolcano, a lava dome at the summit of Mount Spurr, and Crater Peak vent, a small stratocone on the south flank of Mount Spurr volcano.
• The mountain is 3,000 meter high and is topped with a 5 by 6 km caldera.
• The mountain suffered a crater collapse around 10,000 years ago that created Chakachamna Lake.
• There is an active icefield in the caldera and multiple glaciers.
• The volcano last erupted in 1992, that resulted in heavy ashfall and affected air travel in the region.

What is Blue Washing?

• ‘Blue Washing’ refers to the practice of portraying polluting industries as environmentally friendly by categorising them under less polluting or cleaner industry labels.
• This term is now used to describe the reclassification of highly polluting Waste-to-Energy (WTE) incineration industries by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) into the new 'Blue Category'.

Blue Category

• The ‘Blue Category’ is introduced as part of a subset of EES activities like composting, biogas plants, sewage treatment, and material recovery facilities.
• Waste-to-Energy (WTE) incineration, previously under the ‘Red Category’ with a Pollution Index (PI) of 6, is now reclassified as a ‘Blue Category’ industry.

What is WTE Incineration?

• WTE incineration burns mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) to produce heat and electricity.
• It generates energy through turbine-driven steam, similar to coal plants, but emits more CO₂

About Pollution Index (PI)

• The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) introduced a PI to categorise industries based on pollution levels.
• PI is calculated on the basis of emissions (air pollutants), effluents (water pollutants), hazardous waste, and resource consumption.
• PI ranges from 0 to 100, with industries classified as:
  • White Category (0–20): Least polluting
  • Green Category (21–40)
  • Orange Category (41–59)
  • Red Category (60–100): Most polluting.

About Bioluminescence

• Bioluminescence refers to the natural emission of light by organisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae triggered by mechanical disturbances in coastal and estuarine waters.
• The species most commonly responsible is Noctiluca scintillans, a type of dinoflagellate plankton, also known as “sea sparkle”.
• This glow results from chemical reactions inside specialized structures called scintillons and appears primarily blue but can also show red or brown hues depending on species concentration.
• The phenomenon is commonly observed from March to May, locally termed as "Kavaru" in Malayalam.

Scientific Background

• Eutrophication—caused by nutrient overload (especially nitrates and phosphates) from industrial runoff and sewage discharge—is a major driver.
• Salinity levels between 30-35 ppt, rising temperatures, and reduced rainfall contribute to their
• When concentrations exceed 500,000 organisms per litre, it leads to red tides, which can severely disrupt marine ecosystems.

Ecological and Economic Impacts

• Plankton, while a key part of marine food chains, in large numbers release substances like dimethyl sulphide, ammonium, and dissolved organic carbon, causing Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs).
• HABs lead to hypoxia (oxygen depletion), resulting in mass fish mortality and affecting biodiversity and aquaculture
• Fishing communities experience significant losses as fish migrate away from bloom-affected zones, leading to declining catches and reduced income.
• Toxins such as domoic acid and those from Alexandrium can cause amnesic or paralytic shellfish poisoning, harming both marine life and human health.

About Sea Lions

• Family: Otariidae, which includes five species.
• Habitat: Found along the western coasts of North America, from southeast Alaska to central Mexico, mainly on rocky shores and sandy beaches.
• Physical Traits: They possess external ear flaps, long foreflippers, mane-like fur in males, and can weigh up to 1200 pounds (approx. 545 kg).
• Behavior: Typically non-aggressive and social, sea lions are now showing lethal aggression due to neurotoxin-induced neurological disorders.
• Lifespan: The Average lifespan is 20 to 30 years.

What is causing the Sea Lions' Aggression?

• Sea lions, typically non-aggressive marine mammals, have shown violent and erratic behaviour, attributed to exposure to a neurotoxin called domoic acid.
• Domoic acid is secreted by the toxic diatom algae Pseudo-nitzschia, which blooms excessively under nutrient-rich conditions in the ocean.
• Once released, this neurotoxin enters the marine food chain, affecting not just small fish, but also larger predators like sea lions that consume these fish.

 About Sunbird

• Sunbird could potentially reach speeds of up to 805,000 km/h, which is faster than the Parker Solar Probe (692,000 km/h), currently the fastest human-made object.
• This technology, if successful, could enable missions to Pluto in just 4 years and cut travel time to Mars by nearly half.
• It aims to revolutionize interplanetary travel by drastically reducing travel time to distant planets like Mars and Pluto.
• An orbital demonstration is scheduled for 2027, marking a major milestone in space propulsion technology.

What is Nuclear Fusion?

• Nuclear fusion replicates the energy generation process of stars, fusing atoms to release energy.
• Unlike fission, fusion is cleaner and offers higher energy output with lower radioactive waste.

Two Main Concepts in Nuclear Propulsion

About PM-POSHAN Scheme

• The PM-POSHAN Scheme, formerly known as the Mid-Day Meal Scheme, is a centrally sponsored scheme implemented by the Ministry of Education.
• It aims to provide one hot cooked meal per school day to 20 crore children studying in Balvatikas (pre-primary), and Classes 1 to 8 across 10.36 lakh government and government-aided schools.
• The scheme addresses twin objectives:
  • Enhancing nutritional status of school-going children.
  • Improving enrollment, retention, and attendance in schools, especially among disadvantaged children.
• The revised material cost per student per day is:
  • ₹6.78 for Balvatika and Primary students (up from ₹6.19).
  • ₹10.17 for Upper Primary students (up from ₹9.29).
• These rates represent the minimum mandatory contribution. However, States and Union Territories can contribute more from their budgets to provide meals with higher nutritional value.
• Nutritional norms under PM-POSHAN include:
  • For Balvatika and Primary classes: 20g pulses, 50g vegetables, and 5g oil.
  • For Upper Primary classes: 30g pulses, 75g vegetables, and 7.5g oil.
• The Labour Bureau under the Ministry of Labour supplies data on inflation for the items in the PM-POSHAN meal basket. This data is based on the Consumer Price Index – Rural Labourers (CPI-RL), calculated from 600 sample villages across 20 States.
• POSHAN Abhiyan is managed by the Ministry of Women and Child Development and aims to improve nutrition among adolescent girls, pregnant women, lactating mothers, and children (0–6 years).
• Mission POSHAN 2.0, launched in 2021, merged POSHAN Abhiyan and the Supplementary Nutrition Programme to streamline efforts under one unified framework.
• Funding Pattern under POSHAN Abhiyan:
  • 60:40 between Centre and States/UTs with legislature.
  • 90:10 for the Northeastern and Himalayan States.
  • 100% central funding for UTs without legislature

About Mahatma Jyotiba Phule

• Mahatma Jyotiba Phule (1827–1890) was a pioneering Indian social reformer, educator, and writer from Maharashtra, renowned for his relentless fight against caste discrimination and gender inequality.
• Born on April 11, 1827, in Pune, Maharashtra, Jyotirao Govindrao Phule belonged to the Mali caste.
• Despite societal barriers, he pursued education at the Scottish Mission High School in Pune, which exposed him to progressive Western ideas that shaped his reformist vision.
• A personal experience of caste-based discrimination at a friend’s wedding in 1848 profoundly impacted him and inspired his lifelong fight against social injustices.
• His wife, Savitribai Phule, became India's first female teacher and an equal partner in his reforms. Together, they championed women's education and opened the first school for girls in Pune in 1848.

Mahatma Jyotiba Phule Contributions

• Education:
  • Established schools for girls and marginalised communities when educating them was considered taboo.
  • Founded night schools for working-class individuals to ensure access to education irrespective of caste or gender.
• Social Reforms: Satyashodhak Samaj (1873): Founded this "Society of Truth Seekers" to promote social equality and challenge caste oppression. It was open to people from all religions and castes.
• Women's Rights: Advocated for widow remarriage and fought against child marriage and female infanticide.
• Literary Contributions: Authored works like Gulamgiri (Slavery) critiquing caste oppression and Shetkaryacha Asud (Cultivator’s Whip) highlighting farmer exploitation by upper-caste landlords.
• Critique of Brahmanical Orthodoxy: Strongly opposed the caste system perpetuated by Brahmanical traditions and called for its abolition to achieve true social justice.

About BM-04 Missile

• The BM-04 is India's latest short-range ballistic missile (SRBM) developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Unveiled at the Vigyan Vaibhav 2025 defense exhibition in Hyderabad, it represents a significant advancement in India's missile technology.​
• Features:
  • Size: The BM-04 is 10.2 meters long, 1.2 meters in diameter and weighs 11,500 kg.
  • Range: The missile has a two-stage solid-fuel propulsion system; it can engage targets located at a maximum distance of up to 1,500 km, with a 500 kg conventional warhead, and has a 30-meter circular error probability (CEP).
  • Deployment: It can be deployed using a six-wheel indigenous transport erector launcher (TEL).
  • Like the existing missiles in the Indian arsenal, the BM-04 is canisterized, which allows the warheads to be mated with the delivery systems in advance, thus reducing the time required to fire the projectile.
• The BM-04 incorporates a Common Hypersonic Glide Body (C-HGB), enabling it to maneuver during flight and evade enemy missile defenses. This design allows for unpredictable flight paths, enhancing its survivability against anti-access/area denial (A2/AD) systems.​
• BM-04 missiles can be regularly upgraded with new warheads, sensors, and propulsion systems as the threat matrix evolves. This will make the BM-04 a robust and reliable system that can withstand future threats.

Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO)

• DRDO is India's premier military research agency, dedicated to developing advanced technologies for national defence and security.
• Established in 1958 with the motto “Balasya Mulam Vigyanam,” DRDO undertakes indigenous design and development leading to the production of state-of-the-art weapon systems and technologies for the Indian armed forces.
• DRDO has seven technology clusters: Aeronautics, Armament, Combat Engineering, Electronics and Communication Systems, Microelectronic Devices and computational Systems, Life Sciences, and Naval Systems.

About Legionnaires’ Disease

• About: Legionnaires’ disease is a severe form of pneumonia caused by Legionella bacteria commonly found in freshwater environments like lakes or streams but can also thrive in man-made water systems.
• Types: Legionella most commonly causes one of two lung diseases:
  • Legionnaires' disease is a type of severe pneumonia
  • Pontiac fever is mild respiratory disease
• Symptoms: The symptoms of Legionnaires' disease are similar to those of other types of pneumonia and typically include cough, fever, headaches, muscle aches, and shortness of breath. In some cases, individuals may also experience confusion, diarrhea, or nausea.
• Transmission: The most common form of transmission of Legionella is inhalation of contaminated aerosols from contaminated water. It is not contagious, meaning it is not spread from person-to-person.
• Treatment: Treatments exist, but there is no vaccine currently available for Legionnaires’ disease. Patients with Legionnaires’ disease always require antibiotic treatment following diagnosis.

About Indian Giant Flying Squirrel

• Size: One of the largest flying squirrels, with a body length of about 30 – 45 cm and a tail measuring up to 60 cm.
• Features: They have a rufous coat, grey underparts, and large, round eyes. Their flying membrane extends from their wrists to their ankles, which enables them to glide from tree to tree.
• Habitat: Found in tropical and subtropical forests across central and southern India. Evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous forests frequent forest edges.
• Diet: Primarily feeds on fruits, nuts, leaves, and bark, contributing to seed dispersal.
• Behaviour:
  • Nocturnal and arboreal, it glides between trees in search of food, covering distances up to 60 meters. Owls have been found to predate on them and they are found giving alarm calls on seeing or hearing owl’s calls.
  • It is widely distributed and plays a significant role in maintaining forest ecosystems, making it a keystone species in its habitat.
• Protection under WPA: The Indian giant flying squirrel is listed in Schedule II of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
• IUCN Status: The Indian giant flying squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) is currently listed as "Least Concern" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
  • While the global status is "Least Concern," its population in India is facing threats like habitat loss and degradation, which have led to a "Near Threatened" status within the country.

About Taiwan Strait

• The Taiwan Strait is a strategically significant and geopolitically sensitive body of water separating mainland China from the island of Taiwan.
• Approximately 180 kilometers wide at its broadest point and narrowing to about 130 kilometers, it connects the South China Sea to the East China Sea.
• The strait is relatively shallow, with depths averaging around 70 meters (230 feet), and encompasses the Pescadores (Penghu) Islands, which are administered by Taiwan. ​
• The strait was named Formosa (“Beautiful”) by Portuguese navigators in the late 16th century; although it is still known in the West by its European name, the Chinese and now most Westerners use the name Taiwan Strait.
• The strait is also one of the most important fishing grounds in China, and more than a hundred economically important fish species are found here.
• The Taiwan Strait is vital for global trade, with nearly 40% of the world's container ships passing through it annually.

Taiwan Strait History

• The Taiwan Strait has been a focal point of military and political tensions since the conclusion of the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
• Following the retreat of the Nationalist government to Taiwan, the strait became a de facto boundary between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC).
• Notable flashpoints include the Taiwan Strait Crises of 1954–55 and 1958, during which the PRC conducted artillery bombardments of ROC-held islands, prompting U.S. intervention to deter further escalation.