About  Palamu Tiger Reserve:

• It is located in the western part of the Chotanagpur plateau and is spread over two districts, viz, Latehar and Garhwa in Jharkhand.
• The reserve forms a part of the Betla National Park.
• This tiger reserve has a total area of 1,014 sq.km. with a core area of 414 sq.km. and a buffer area of 600 sq.km.
• It is one of the first 9 tiger reserves created in the country at the inception of ‘Project Tiger’.
• It is the first reserve in the world in which a tiger census was carried out as a pugmark count, as early as 1932 under the supervision of J.W. Nicholson.
• The terrain is undulating with valleys, hills and plains.
• Three rivers namely North Koyal, Auranga and Burha flow through the valleys.
• The area is drought prone with Burha being the only perennial river.
• The geological formation consists of gneiss and includes granite and limestone.
• The area is very rich in minerals like Bauxite and Coal.
• Flora:
  • The vegetation in Palamau region comprises moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests to include Sal and bamboo as the major components.
  • The western part of the Reserve is composed of dry deciduous forests and the other part shows characters of moist mixed deciduous nature.
  • The entire area has a good distribution of bamboo thatches.
  • The herbarium recently prepared by the Tiger Reserve authorities records a good number of medicinal plants.
• Fauna: Some keystone and principal species found in the reserve include Tiger, Asiatic Elephant, Leopard, Grey wolf, Wild dog, Gaur, Sloth bear and four horned antelope.

About Vizhinjam Port:

• Location: It is located at Vizhinjam, a coastal town in Thiruvananthapuram District, Kerala.
• It is India's first dedicated transshipment port and also the country's first semi-automated port.
• Built at a cost of around Rs 8,900 crore under public-private partnership (PPP) mode, the transshipment port is operated by the Adani Group, with the Kerala government holding the majority stake.
• Features:
  • The breakwater at Vizhinjam is the deepest in India and stretches nearly three kilometres. It has a natural draft of around 20 metres.
  • It also features India's first home-built, AI-powered Vessel Traffic Management System, developed with IIT Madras.
  • It is equipped with fully automated yard cranes and remotely operated ship-to-shore cranes for faster and safer operations.
  • Unlike most Indian ports, Vizhinjam experiences minimal sand movement along the coast (littoral drift), which reduces maintenance costs.
• Importance:
  • Vizhinjam’s strategic location—just 10 nautical miles from a key international shipping route—and naturally deep waters make it ideal for accommodating large container vessels.
  • Until now, 75% of India’s transshipment traffic was handled abroad, leading to foreign exchange losses. Vizhinjam aims to change that by reclaiming a substantial share of this traffic.
  • The port now shares routes with global hubs like Shanghai, Singapore, and Busan (South Korea).
  • Plans are also underway to turn Vizhinjam into a multi-modal logistics hub, with direct highway connectivity via NH-66, Kerala’s first cloverleaf interchange, and an upcoming railway link to the national network.

About Green Hydrogen Certification Scheme of India (GHCI):

• It was launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India, under the National Green Hydrogen Mission, aiming to establish India as a global hub for green hydrogen production and export.
• The scheme emphasizes accuracy in emissions data, strict monitoring, and international compatibility, aiming to boost investor confidence and support the growth of a credible green hydrogen market in India.
• Features of GHCI:
  • Hydrogen can be officially recognized as “green” only if its non-biogenic greenhouse gas emissions do not exceed 2 kg of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e)/kg of hydrogen, averaged over 12 months, under the
  • The scheme outlines a comprehensive certification process for producers to verify that the hydrogen is produced using renewable energy and that the greenhouse gas emissions do not exceed 2 kg of CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e)/kg of hydrogen.
  • This threshold is measured across the production stages within a defined system boundary.
  • The certification framework includes clear definitions, objectives, roles of stakeholders, eligible production pathways (electrolysis and biomass conversion) and emissions quantification methods.
  • Producers must appoint Accredited Carbon Verification (ACV) agencies, recognized by the Bureau of Energy Efficiency, for independent verification.
• The GHCI operates with four types of certificates: Concept Certificate, Facility-Level Certificate, Provisional Certificate and Final Certificate.
• Concept and Facility-Level certificates focus on design and operational readiness, while Provisional and Final certificates evaluate actual emissions based on production data.
• Final certificates are mandatory for facilities benefiting from government incentives or intending to sell hydrogen domestically.
• Data monitoring plays a crucial role. Producers are required to maintain detailed production and emissions records for at least five years.
• A standardized MRV (Monitoring, Reporting, Verification) framework guides this process, enhancing transparency and enabling traceability.
• The scheme also aligns with international standards like ISO 19870:2023 for lifecycle GHG assessments, helping ensure global comparability and investor confidence.
• The certification also enables producers to access carbon credits under the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), subject to additional compliance requirements.
• Certificates are issued in multiples of 100 kg of hydrogen and include detailed information on emission intensity and production attributes.
• A nominal fee is applicable only for the final certificate.
• To ensure compliance, the MNRE or its designated agency may withdraw certificates if verified emissions exceed the allowed threshold or if producers fail to complete the certification process on time.
• Repeat non-compliance can lead to penalties, including ineligibility for future certification cycles.

About Orange Economy:

• The Orange Economy, also known as the ‘creative economy,’ is a concept that includes sectors related to creativity and cultural industries.
• According to the United Nations Economic Network, the creative economy is an evolving idea that focuses on the contribution and potential of creative assets to drive economic growth and development.
• This economy integrates economic, cultural and social aspects, interacting with technology, intellectual property and tourism objectives.
• It consists of knowledge-based economic activities with a development dimension, featuring cross-cutting linkages at macro and micro levels to the overall economy.
• These are industries based on individual creativity, skill and talent, with the potential to create jobs, wealth and cultural value.
• Industries within this economy include advertising, architecture, arts and crafts, design, fashion, film, video, photography, music, performing arts, publishing, research and development, software, computer games, electronic publishing, and TV/radio.
• Popularised by Colombian economists Felipe Buitrago and Iván Duque, the term “orange” symbolises creativity and cultural identity.
• According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Orange Economy accounts for 3% of global gross domestic product (GDP) and 30 million jobs worldwide.
• Inspired by ideas, it’s known for constant innovation, singular products (not mass production) and digitized processes.

About Chandola Lake:

• It is an artificial lake located in Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
• It was established by the wife of a Mughal Sultan of Ahmedabad named Tajn Khan Nari Ali.
• The lake covers a land area of around 1200 hectares and is a major source of water for nearby industrial and residential areas.
• It is in circular form.
• The Kharicut Canal Scheme which is one of the oldest irrigation schemes of Gujarat was introduced with the main purpose of providing irrigation to 1,200 acres of rice land near Chandola lake in Ahmedabad.
• The lake is separated into the parts called the Chota Chandola and the Bada Chandola
• It is also home for cormorants, painted storks and spoonbill birds.
• There is a tomb of Shah Aalam next to the lake.
  • He was one of the most revered of Muslim religious teachers of Ahmedabad.
  • The tomb was built in the period between 1475 and 1483.
  • The tomb is decorated with precious gold and stones.

About Rishikesh-Karnaprayag Tunnel T-8

• T-8 is a twin tunnel situated on the Devprayag–Janasu stretch of the 125-km Rishikesh–Karnaprayag Broad Gauge Rail Link Project, in the state of Uttarakhand.
• The project is being implemented by Rail Vikas Nigam Limited (RVNL), a Navratna PSU under the Ministry of Railways, and executed by Larsen & Toubro (L&T).
• Over 83% of the 125-km alignment—about 104 km—comprises tunnels, making it one of the most underground-intensive rail projects in India.
• The rail line will connect Rishikesh to Karnaprayag, cutting travel time from 7 hours to just 2 hours, enhancing connectivity across five districts: Dehradun, Tehri Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag and Chamoli.

Engineering and Technological Highlights

• Tunnel Boring Machines (TBMs) were used for the first time in Himalayan rail projects to excavate 4 km of T-8. These 2200-tonne machines were imported from Germany, transported via 17 shipments and assembled on site.
• The diameter of the TBM used for T-8 was 1 metres, larger than the 6-metre TBMs used in the Delhi Metro.
• The New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM) was used to excavate the remaining 4.11 km of the tunnel, especially in non-uniform geological zones.
• Three advanced technologies were deployed for safety and precision:
  • Tunnel Seismic Prediction (TSP) to detect geological faults.
  • Torque Box for multidirectional boring capability.
  • Void Measurement to detect and fill gaps behind tunnel linings.

About the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002

• The Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA), 2002 was enacted in January 2003 to combat money laundering and confiscate proceeds of crime.
• Section 3 defines money laundering as any attempt to project criminal proceeds as untainted assets.
• The main objectives of the Act are:
  • To prevent and control money laundering,
  • To attach and confiscate assets derived from crime,
  • To address related economic offences in India.
• PMLA has undergone major amendments in 2009 and 2012 to expand its scope and enforcement powers.
• As of 2024-25, the ED has initiated 775 new investigations under the PMLA and filed 333 prosecution complaints, demonstrating increased legal action against money laundering.

Enforcement Directorate (ED) Role

• ED is the chief enforcement agency under PMLA, empowered to investigate, attach property, and file prosecution complaints.
• The Act mandates record maintenance and client identity verification by banks, financial institutions and intermediaries.
• Key institutions include:
  • Adjudicating Authority (for attachment confirmation),
  • Appellate Tribunal, and
  • Special Courts (designated sessions courts for PMLA trials).
• The Act allows international cooperation through treaties and MoUs with foreign governments.

Focus Areas for 2025

• Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA) cases are a key enforcement priority this year.
• Under the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018, applications were filed against 24 individuals, and 14 have been declared fugitive economic offenders.
  • Over ₹900 crore worth of assets have been confiscated so far.

About Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA)

• The Indo-Pacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA) is a Quad-led initiative launched during the Quad Leaders’ Summit in Tokyo in May 2022.
• The initiative was introduced to track "dark shipping", vessels that switch off tracking systems to evade detection and to build a faster, broader and more accurate maritime surveillance network across the Indo-Pacific region.
• Three strategic sub-regions of the Indo-Pacific are targeted under this initiative: the Pacific Islands, Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

Purpose and Functions of IPMDA

• The primary objective of IPMDA is to enhance maritime domain awareness and bring greater transparency to critical sea lanes of the Indo-Pacific region.
• It is a technology and training initiative that uses advanced tools like commercial satellite radio frequency (RF) data to monitor and detect maritime activity in near real-time.
• Through this, IPMDA aims to provide partner countries in Southeast Asia, Pacific, and IOR with timely and actionable maritime intelligence to protect their exclusive economic zones (EEZs).

Details of the U.S. Approval to India

• The United States has approved a potential sale of maritime surveillance technology worth $131 million to India. The deal includes:
  • SeaVision software and its enhancements,
  • A Technical Assistance Field Team (TAFT) for training,
  • Remote software and analytics support, and
  • Program documentation and logistics
• SeaVision is a key maritime situational awareness tool widely used for vessel tracking and coastal surveillance.

About Private Member’s Bill (PMB)

• A Private Member’s Bill (PMB) is a legislative proposal introduced by any Member of Parliament (MP) who is not a Minister, whether elected or nominated.
• The drafting responsibility of a PMB lies entirely with the MP concerned, not with any Ministry.
• For introducing a PMB in Parliament, a notice period of one month is required under parliamentary rules.
• PMBs often reflect the ideological stance, personal convictions, or public interest concerns of the MP, especially those in the Opposition.

Time Allocation for PMBs in Parliament

• In the Lok Sabha, the last two-and-a-half hours of business on every Friday are earmarked for the introduction and discussion of PMBs.
• In the Rajya Sabha, PMBs are taken up every alternate Friday for two-and-a-half hours.

Historical Record and Trends

• Since Independence, only 14 PMBs have ever been passed and received Presidential assent, with the last one becoming law in 1970.
• In the 17th Lok Sabha (2019–2024), 729 PMBs were introduced in the Lok Sabha and 705 in the Rajya Sabha. Yet, only 2 PMBs were discussed in Lok Sabha, and 14 in the Rajya Sabha.
• In the 18th Lok Sabha, as of the 2024 Budget Session, only 20 MPs introduced PMBs, and not a single one was discussed due to disruptions and prioritisation of other business.

What are Critical Minerals and Rare Earths?

• Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are a group of 17 chemically similar metals essential for making permanent magnets used in electric vehicles (EVs), smartphones, missile systems and wind turbines.
• The S. Geological Survey (USGS) lists 50 minerals as “critical”, including lithium, nickel, cobalt and rare earths, due to their vital role in defence, aerospace, green energy and electronics.
• These minerals have no commercially viable substitutes, making their supply chain strategically important.

Ukraine’s Mineral Wealth

• Ukraine has 22 of the 34 minerals classified as critical by the European Union (EU).
• Major critical minerals in Ukraine include:
  • Rare earth elements such as lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, erbium, yttrium, and scandium.
  • Lithium, nickel, manganese, beryllium, gallium, zirconium, graphite, apatite, fluorite and titanium.
• Graphite reserves in Ukraine account for approximately 20% of global resources, crucial for EV batteries and nuclear reactors.
• Lithium reserves are estimated at 500,000 metric tonnes, one of the largest in Europe. Key lithium areas include the central, eastern and southeastern regions.
• Titanium is concentrated in the northwestern and central regions and is used in the aerospace and defence
• China dominates global rare earth production, making Ukraine a strategically attractive alternative supplier for Western economies.

About Global Antibiotic Research & Development Partnership (GARDP):

• It is a not-for-profit organization that develops new antibiotic treatments for drug-resistant bacterial infections that pose the greatest threat to human health and makes them accessible to the people who need them.
• It puts public health needs at the centre of antibiotic drug development to address both the immediate antimicrobial resistance (AMR) crisis and to ensure people continue to get access to essential antibiotics for generations to come.
• GARDP was created by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi) to deliver on the Global Action Plan on AMR (2015), which underscores the need for new initiatives to develop novel antibiotic treatments.
• Legally established as an independent foundation in Geneva, Switzerland, in 2018, GARDP responds to the urgent need for antibiotic research, development, and access.
  • It brings together public and private partners to accelerate the development and global availability of new antibiotics.

About Notice to Air Mission (NOTAM):

• Notice to Air Mission, also known as Notice to Airmen, is a notice containing information concerning the establishment, condition, or change in any aeronautical facility, service, procedure, or hazard, the timely knowledge of which is essential to personnel concerned with flight operations.
• NOTAMs update pilots about changes in airspace, airports, and equipment that affect aircraft operations.
• It is a bulletin issued by a country’s aviation authority.
• NOTAMs are issued by national authorities for a number of reasons, such as:
  • Hazards such as air-shows, parachute jumps and glider or micro-light flying;
  • Flights by important people such as heads of state;
  • Closed runways, taxiways, etc;
  • Unserviceable radio navigational aids;
  • Military exercises with resulting airspace restrictions;
  • Unserviceable lights on tall obstructions;
  • Temporary erection of obstacles near airfields (e.g. cranes).
• For reasons of conciseness and precision, NOTAMs are encoded, although the code is usually sufficiently self-evident to allow the user to identify a hazard.
• NOTAMs are communicated by the issuing agency using the fastest available means to all addressees for whom the information is assessed as being of direct operational significance, and who would not otherwise have at least seven days' prior notification.
• NOTAMs are typically accessible through online platforms, electronic flight planning tools, and aviation weather services, allowing pilots to conveniently access up-to-date information and make informed decisions regarding their flight activities.
• Pilots who do not review NOTAMS before flight put themselves (and others) in danger.

About Raghuji Bhosale I:

• Raghuji Bhosale I (1695–February 14, 1755) was the founder of the Bhosale family of Nagpur and an important commander in the Maratha army during the reign of Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj.
• Chhatrapati Shahu Maharaj had bestowed the title of 'Senasahibsubha' on Raghujiraje for his bravery and war strategy.
• Raghujiraje Bhosale I led military campaigns against the Nawab of Bengal in 1745 and 1755 and expanded the Maratha empire to Bengal and Odisha.
• Along with this, he established his dominance over the regions of Chanda, Chhattisgarh, and Sambalpur during his reign.
• He also defeated the Nawabs of Cuddapah and Kurnool and established his military and political dominance in South India.

Who were Nagpur Bhonsles?

• Like the Peshwa, Holkar, Gaikwad, and Scindia families, the Nagpur Bhonsle family also played a significant role in expanding the Maratha Empire.
• The Nagpur branch of the Bhonsle dynasty was founded by Raghoji Bhonsle I in the early 18th century.
• He expanded Maratha influence in central and eastern India, including parts of present-day Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha.
• The family was one of the royal or Kshatriya clans of the Marathas and considered itself as the descendant of Udaipur’s Sisodia Rajputs.
• The Bhonsles of Nagpur were known as Hinganikar as one of their ancestors — who was probably a contemporary of Maloji, the grandfather of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj — rehabilitated the village Beradi near Hingani in the present district of Pune.
• The Nagpur Bhosales ruled over a mineral-rich region abundant in iron and copper, which were skillfully used to craft both everyday items and formidable weapons.
• The quality and artistry of the weaponry crafted by the Bhosales are renowned for their exceptional craftsmanship.

About Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle:

• The red-crowned roofed turtle, or Bengal roof turtle, is a species of freshwater turtle endemic to South Asia.
• Scientific Name: Batagur kachuga
• Distribution:
  • It is native to India, Bangladesh, and Nepal.
  • Historically, the species was widespread in the Ganga River, both in India and Bangladesh.
  • It also occurs in the Brahmaputra basin.
  • Currently in India, the National Chambal River Gharial Sanctuary is the only area with a substantial population of the species.
• Features:
  • It is a medium-sized turtle that can grow up to 56 cm in length and can weigh up to 25 kg.
  • In comparison to their female counterparts, the males are shorter and reach only half their length.
  • They have a reddish-orange colored head with a black crown and a greenish-brown carapace (upper shell) with yellowish patterns.
  • Their plastron (lower shell) is yellow with black markings.
  • They have a broad head, strong jaws and webbed feet.
  • It is omnivorous and feeds on a variety of plants and animals.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN : Critically Endangered
  • Wild Life (Protection) Act of 1972: Schedule I
  • CITES : Appendix II

About International Labour Day:

• International Labour Day, also known as May Day, is observed annually on May 1 to honor the dedication and contributions of workers across the globe.
• It is a memorial to the labor movement's struggles and victories.
• History:
  • The origins of International Labor Day are found in Chicago, where on May 1, 1886, workers called for a strike for an eight-hour workday.
  • The protest, which turned into what is now remembered as the Haymarket Affair, was a turning point in labor history.
  • On May 4, violence broke out in Haymarket Square when a bomb was thrown at police officers.
  • The resulting gunfire resulted in several deaths, including six officers and a number of civilians.
  • This turning point stimulated trade unions and socialist federations across Europe to declare May 1 an international day of workers' solidarity, formally approved in 1889 at the Paris meeting of the Second International.
• While International Labour Day commemorates events in the United States, both the US and Canada observe Labour Day on the first Monday of September, not May 1.
• Over 80 countries, including India, Cuba, and China, mark International Labour Day.
• In India, the first Labour Day celebration was held in Chennai (then Madras) in 1923 by the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan.
• The day usually involves parades, union gatherings, and celebrations that emphasize employee rights.

What is Natural Hydrogen?

• Hydrogen is considered the fuel of the future due to its potential to decarbonise the global economy and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
• Natural hydrogen, also known as white hydrogen, refers to naturally occurring molecular hydrogen in the Earth’s crust, unlike industrially produced hydrogen.

How is Natural Hydrogen Formed?

• It is generated through geological processes, primarily:
  • Serpentinisation – a reaction between water and iron-rich rocks.
  • Radiolysis – breakdown of water molecules by radioactive rocks.
  • Decomposition of organic matter in deep geological formations.

Why is Natural Hydrogen Important?

• Natural hydrogen is a clean energy source that, if harvested sustainably, can significantly reduce carbon emissions.
• It can provide a low-cost and low-emission alternative to conventional hydrogen sources like grey hydrogen (from natural gas) and green hydrogen (from renewable electricity).
• The cost of natural hydrogen extraction may fall to around $1/kg or less, which is lower than current green hydrogen production costs.
• Natural hydrogen is typically associated with tectonically active regions, ultramafic and basaltic rocks, ophiolite complexes, and hydrothermal systems.
• In India, potential-rich regions include:
  • Cratonic belts (e.g., Dharwar, Singhbhum)
  • Sedimentary basins (e.g., Vindhyan, Cuddapah, Gondwana, Chhattisgarh)
  • Ophiolitic zones in the Andaman Islands and Himalayas.
  • Basement rock fracture zones and hot springs.

What is S8?

• S8 (Sigma Eight) is a parameter used in cosmology to quantify the "clumpiness" or clustering of matter in the universe on a scale of about 26 million light-years.
• It helps determine how much matter (both visible and dark) is clustered in different cosmic regions.

Background

• The universe began with the Big Bang ~13.8 billion years ago, starting off highly uniform, as revealed by the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB).
• Small fluctuations in density (1 in 100,000) eventually evolved into galaxies, star clusters, and filaments, forming the lumpy structure of the present universe.

What is the S8 Tension?

• The S8 tension refers to the mismatch in the value of S8 as obtained by:
  • CMB measurements (higher value).
  • Cosmic shear/lensing surveys (lower value).
• This discrepancy challenges the ΛCDM (Lambda Cold Dark Matter) model, the standard model of cosmology.

Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)

• CMB is a sea of photons, the particles of light, present throughout the universe. They are left over from the Big Bang, its afterglow.
• Scientists have measured temperature changes in the CMB and studied its large-scale properties using complicated trigonometry.
• Based on these studies, cosmologists have estimated space to be expanding at around 68 kilometres per second per megaparsec ((km/s)/Mpc). That is, an object one megaparsec (3.26 million lightyears) away is moving away at 68 km/s)/Mpc.

Cosmic Shear & Gravitational Lensing

• Cosmic shear refers to the distortion in galaxy shapes due to gravitational lensing by intervening matter.
• This lensing helps map dark matter distribution and provides an indirect method to calculate S8.
• Lower S8 from lensing suggests less clumping than expected.

About the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC)

• The NHRC is a statutory body, constituted under the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993.
• It was established on 12th October 1993 as an independent institution to protect and promote human rights, defined under Section 2(1)(d) of the Act.

Mandate and Objectives

• The NHRC safeguards rights related to life, liberty, equality, and human dignity, guaranteed by the Constitution of India and international human rights treaties.
• Its primary objectives include:
  • Strengthening institutional frameworks to address human rights issues.
  • Independent investigation of alleged human rights violations.
  • Supporting and enhancing the work of other institutions in promoting human rights.

Composition and Structure

• The NHRC consists of a Chairperson and up to five members, including:
  • A retired Chief Justice of India (as Chairperson).
  • A retired or sitting Supreme Court judge.
  • A retired or sitting Chief Justice of a High Court.
  • Three experts in human rights, with at least one woman among them.
• Additionally, seven ex-officio members include the Chairpersons of:
  • National Commissions for SCs, STs, Minorities, Women, Backward Classes, Child Rights, and the Chief Commissioner for Persons with Disabilities.

Appointment and Tenure

• Members are appointed by the President of India based on the recommendation of a six-member committee led by the Prime Minister.
• Tenure: Three years or until the age of 70, whichever is earlier. Members are eligible for reappointment but barred from further government employment post-tenure.

Why in the News?

• A ₹188.25 crore comprehensive five-year plan has been submitted to the Kerala Chief Minister, with possible revisions based on ongoing studies by the Centre for Water Resources Development and Management (CWRDM).
• Eight subcommittees have been constituted across sectors such as agriculture, fisheries, water resources, biodiversity, sanitation, and disaster management to coordinate the restoration.
• Over the last century, Vembanad Lake has shrunk alarmingly, with a 27% reduction in surface area between 1917 and 1990, primarily due to land reclamation, sedimentation, and encroachment.
• Recent cleaning drives have removed 72 tonnes of plastic waste and large quantities of water hyacinth from the lake.

About Vembanad Lake

• Vembanad Lake is the longest lake in India and the largest in the state of Kerala, stretching approximately 5 km in length.
• It spans across three Kerala districts: Alappuzha, Kottayam, and Ernakulam, and covers an area of around 2,033 square kilometres.
• The lake is known by different local names, such as Vembanad Kayal, Vembanad Kol, Punnamada Lake (in Kuttanad), and Kochi Lake (in Kochi).
• It is fed by six major rivers, notably the Meenachil, Achankovil, Pamba, and Manimala, and has an outlet into the Arabian Sea on the western side.
• Vembanad encompasses important islands such as Pathiramanal, Perumbalam, and Pallippuram, making it a prominent part of Kerala’s backwater tourism circuit.
• It hosts the Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary on its eastern shore, enhancing its ecological and tourism value.
• The famous Nehru Trophy Snake Boat Race (Vallam Kali) is conducted annually in August in the Punnamada segment of the lake.
• Vembanad Lake is part of the Vembanad-Kol Wetland, which was designated as a Ramsar site in 2002 for its international ecological importance.

About Foreign Institutional Investors (FIIs)

• FIIs are a subset of Foreign Portfolio Investors (FPIs), comprising large institutional investors like mutual funds, pension funds, insurance companies, and hedge funds.
• FIIs typically adopt a strategic and structured investment approach in foreign financial markets, offering long-term capital inflows to emerging economies.
• However, rapid FII outflows can destabilize domestic markets, making regulatory oversight

Regulatory Framework Governing FIIs in India

• FIIs are regulated by:
  • The Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999
  • SEBI (Foreign Portfolio Investors) Regulations
  • The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) monitors sectoral investment ceilings

Investment Ceilings and Eligibility

• FIIs can invest up to 10% in any single Indian company, subject to a cumulative FII/NRI/PIO limit of 24%.
• Eligible FII entities now include university funds, charitable endowments, and trusts with a minimum five-year operational track record.
• FIIs are permitted to invest in unlisted securities and use their proprietary funds.

 Macroeconomic Drivers

• A major reason cited for the increased FII participation is the softening of the U.S. Dollar Index, which has declined from 104–105 to nearly 99–100, improving the relative strength of the Indian rupee.
• The Reserve Bank of India's accommodative stance and macro-stability have encouraged investments, particularly in banking, financial services, and insurance (BFSI)

Meanwhile, FIIs reduced their exposure to the IT sector due to concerns about a potential U.S. recession and its impact on tech earnings.