About Central Board of Direct Taxes (CBDT):

• It is a statutory authority constituted under the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963.
• It is a part of the Department of Revenue in the Ministry of Finance.
• Functions:
  • Its functions include formulation of policies, dealing with matters relating to levy and collection of direct taxes, and supervision of the functioning of the entire Income Tax Department.
  • CBDT also proposes legislative changes in direct tax enactments and changes in rates and structure of taxation in tune with the policies of the Government.
• Historical Background:
  • In 1924, a Board of Revenue was set up to make tax collection more efficient in British India.
  • Initially, the Board was in charge of both direct and indirect taxes.
  • However, when the administration of taxes became too unwieldy for one Board to handle, the Board was split up into two, namely the Central Board of Direct Taxes and Central Board of Excise and Customs, with effect from 1.1.1964
  • This division was formalized through the constitution of the two Boards under Section 3 of the Central Board of Revenue Act, 1963.
• Structure:
  • The CBDT is headed by a Chairman and also comprises six members, all of whom are ex-officio Special Secretary to the Government of India.
    • Member (Income Tax)
    • Member (Legislation and Computerization)
    • Member (Revenue)
    • Member (Personnel & Vigilance)
    • Member (Investigation)
    • Member (Audit & Judicial)
  • The Chairman is the co-ordinating head, and each of the members has been assigned a specialized function.
  • The Chairman and Members of CBDT are selected from Indian Revenue Service (IRS).

About UK-India Young Professionals Scheme:

• It was conceived as part of an India-U.K. Migration and Mobility MoU signed in May 2021 and was announced in November at the G20 summit in Bali.
• It was formally launched in February 2023.
• Features:
  • It allows Indian citizens between 18 and 30 years old to live and work in the UK for up to 2 years.
  • It will enable candidates to enter the UK at any time while their visa is valid and leave and return anytime during their stay.
• Eligibility to get Visa:
  • You have to be an Indian national aged between 18 and 30 years.
  • You must have a bachelor’s degree or above.
  • You must have 2,530 pounds in savings.
  • You must not have any children under the age of 18 who live with you or whom you are financially supporting.
  • A person must be selected in the India Young Professionals Scheme ballot before they can apply for a Young Professionals Scheme visa.
  • You cannot apply if you’ve already been in the UK under this scheme or the Youth Mobility Scheme visa.
  • In case the applicant is issued a visa, they must enter the UK within six months of the date on which the visa was issued.
• Once in the UK, the applicant can
  • Study -for certain degree programs, such as post-graduation or research in sensitive subjects in the UK, an additional certificate under the Academic Technology Approval Scheme (ATAS) needs to be applied before starting the course or research.
  • Work in most jobs.
  • Be self-employed and set up a company – as long as your premises are rented, your equipment is not worth more than £5,000, and you do not have any employees.
• Visa Limitations:
  • The visa cannot be extended, and applicants are not eligible for most public benefits.
  • Family members cannot be included in the application and must apply separately if they wish to come.
  • Working in the sports category, including coaching, is not permitted.

About Sea Slug:

• Sea slugs, also known as Nudibranchs, are soft-bodied marine molluscs found in all the world's oceans, from shallows to the deep sea.
• They belong to Phylum Mollusca and Class Gastropoda.
• They look like naked snails, i.e., without shells.
• These slow-moving grazers consume algae, sponges, and other small invertebrates, showcasing a range of feeding habits.
• They are usually found in coral reefs and their presence is a significant indicator of a strong coral ecosystem.
• Sea slugs are renowned for their vibrant colours and intricate patterns, which often serve as warning signals to predators due to their toxicity.
• They get their toxicity from the creatures they eat, and some sea slugs can even keep the stinging cells of jellyfish inside their bodies.
• Beyond their striking appearance, sea slugs possess other intriguing traits.
  • Some can photosynthesise, producing their own food with sunlight.
  • Others regenerate lost limbs, and a few can steal genes from their prey and incorporate them into their DNA.
• Most sea slugs are active throughout the day, but some species are also nocturnal.

About Mig-21:

• It is a supersonic jet fighter aircraft.
• It was designed by the Mikoyan-Gurevich Design Bureau (OKB) of the erstwhile Soviet Union.
• First inducted into the Indian Air Force (IAF) in 1963, the MiG-21 is India's first-ever supersonic jet.
• India’s Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) built 657 MiG-21s under a license that was granted by Russia.
• It is the second most produced jet aircraft in the world.
• Its NATO reporting name is ‘Fishbed’. Other nicknames include ‘Balalaika’ because its planform resembles the stringed musical instrument of the same name; ‘Ołówek’ (Polish for ‘pencil’), due to the shape of its fuselage; and ‘Én Bạc’, meaning ‘silver swallow’ in Vietnamese.
• The MiG-21 has seen more conflicts than any other fighter in history.
• The MiG-21 participated in nearly every war or conflict India has faced since 1963, the 1965 and 1971 India-Pakistan wars, the 1999 Kargil War, the Balakot airstrikes in 2019, and most recently, Operation Sindoor.

About Lumpy Skin Disease (LSD):

• It is a highly infectious viral disease that affects all breeds of cattle and water buffalo.
• Causative Agent: It is caused by the lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV), a member of the genus Capripoxvirus (CaPV) within the family Poxviridae (smallpox and monkeypox viruses are also a part of the same family).
• LSDV is not zoonotic, so humans cannot get infected by the virus.
• The disease is endemic in Africa and the Middle East and has been spreading increasingly in Europe and Southeast Asia over recent years.
• The disease is most common in the wet summer and fall months, especially in low-lying areas near water bodies, but it can also occur in the dry season.
• LSD is a highly host-specific disease. It primarily affects cows and to a lesser extent, buffalo.
• The disease is more severe in cattle compared to buffaloes in terms of morbidity and mortality.
• The disease is of economic importance as it can cause a temporary reduction in milk production, temporary or permanent sterility in bulls, damage to hides and, occasionally, death.
• Transmission:
  • It is transmitted by blood-feeding insects, such as certain species of flies, mosquitoes, or ticks.
  • Infected animals shed the virus through oral and nasal secretions, which may contaminate common feeding and water troughs.
  • Thus, the disease can either spread through direct contact with the vectors or through contaminated fodder and water.
• Symptoms:
  • The disease is characterized by high fever and enlarged superficial lymph nodes on the skin and peculiar multiple nodules or lumps on the skin.
  • It can also lead to death, especially in animals that have not previously been exposed to the virus or have low immunity.
• Treatment:
  • There is no treatment for the virus, so prevention by vaccination is the most effective means of control.
  • The infected animals receive supportive care, which involves the use of antibiotics, painkillers, and wound care sprays to treat symptoms.

About Financial Inclusion Index:

• The FI-Index has been conceptualised as a comprehensive index incorporating details of banking, investments, insurance, postal as well as the pension sector in consultation with Government and respective sectoral regulators.
• The index captures information on various aspects of financial inclusion in a single value ranging between 0 and 100, where 0 represents complete financial exclusion and 100 indicates full financial inclusion.
• Parameters: The FI-Index comprises three broad parameters, Access (35%), Usage (45%), and Quality (20%) with each of these consisting of various dimensions, which are computed based on a number of indicators.
• The Index is responsive to ease of access, availability and usage of services, and quality of services, comprising all 97 indicators.
• A unique feature of the Index is the Quality parameter which captures the quality aspect of financial inclusion as reflected by financial literacy, consumer protection, and inequalities and deficiencies in services.
• The FI-Index has been constructed without any ‘base year’ and as such it reflects cumulative efforts of all stakeholders over the years towards financial inclusion.
• The FI-Index will be published annually in July every year.
• The index also includes data from various sectors such as banking, investments, insurance, postal services, and pensions, making it a comprehensive measure of financial inclusion in the country.

About Kanniyakumari Wildlife Sanctuary:

• Location: It is located in the Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu.
• It is situated near the southernmost tip of India at the confluence point of three major water bodies namely; Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean.
• The sanctuary is bounded at North by KalakkadMundanthurai Tiger Reserve, South by Kodayar left bank channel and Thovalai channel and in West by Kerala State.
• The area is also home to several tribal communities living in adjoining reserve forests.
• Rivers: Seven rivers have their origin in this forest including the famous Pahrali and Thamirabarani rivers. 
• Vegetation: The natural vegetation of this region represents southern thorn forests, dry deciduous, moist deciduous, semi evergreen forests and ever green hill sholas with grassy downs.
• Fauna: It is home to Indian Bison, Elephant, Nilgiri Tahr, Sambar Deer, Lion-tailed Macaque and also reptiles such as Indian Rock Python.

About Lantana camara:

• It is an invasive alien species.
• It is a pantropical weed species, is native to the tropical and sub-tropical regions of Central and South America.
• It is an exotic weed that aggressively proliferates and forms a dense mesh of bushes.
• In India, it was first introduced in the early 18th century, and since then, it has invaded almost all the tropical areas across the country.
• It has been observed that it has been infesting from lower areas towards higher regions.
• Ecological Impact: It is known to produce allelochemicals that restrict the growth of other species under its canopy.
• Hence, it replaces native flora, resulting in homogeneous vegetation, significantly contributing to decline in biodiversity.
• Its management can be achieved by using its biomass for socioeconomic purposes — its timber for making furniture and also as fuelwood, etc.
• Its biomass can be used to produce organic compost and vermicompost, which will be better for organic farming and an alternative to inorganic manures available in the market.

About Chola Gangam Lake:

• Location: It is a prominent water body situated within the vicinity of Gangaikonda Cholapuramin the Ariyalur District of Tamil Nadu, India.
• It is locally known as Ponneri lake.
• Background
  • This historic lake owes its existence to Rajendra Chola I, a famous ruler of the Chola Dynasty
  • It was dug by King Rajendra Chola I to celebrate his northern campaign, according to Tiruvalangadu Copper Plates.
  • To ensure a continuous water supply to Cholagangam Lake, a meticulously planned canal was constructed at a distance of sixty stones` throw from the Kollidam River.
  • This canal served as a vital waterway, connecting the Kollidam River to Cholagangam Lake, ensuring the consistent replenishment of the reservoir.
• The lake depends on surface water collected during the rains.
• According to some records the tank once irrigated 1,564 acres of land, its primary purpose being to supply drinking water to Gangaikonda Cholapuram.

Who was Rajendra Chola I?

• He is often described as Rajendra the Great, was a Chola emperor who ruled between 1014 and 1044 CE. 
• Rajendra succeeded his father, Rajaraja I, in 1014 CE.
• He was also known as Gangaikonda Cholan, meaning “Bringer of the Ganges River”. Another title was Kadaram Kondan, which means “Conqueror of Kedah”.
• In order to commemorate his victory to the Ganges and over the northern kings, Rajendra Chola I assumed the title of ‘Gangaikondachola’ and had a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva built, which he named ‘Gangaikondacholeshwaram Mahadev’.
• He also founded the city of ‘Gangaikondacholapuram’ and shifted his capital there from Thanjavur.

About Karenia mikimotoi:

• It is one of the most common red-tide dinoflagellates proliferating in the eastern North Atlantic and around Japan.
• It releases hemolytic toxins and ichthyo toxins, causing massive negative impacts on fishery and marine ecological environment.
• There have not been confirmed reports of direct impacts to human health by Karenia mikimotoi, but blooms of this species can cause large-scale mortality events of marine fauna such as shellfish, echinoderms, crustaceans, and fish. 
• Anoxic conditions can also occur when K. mikimotoi cells die in large numbers and subsequent breakdown by bacteria deplete oxygen in the surrounding waters. 
• It is less toxic but more globally widespread with blooms reported in Ireland, Norway, India, Japan, Korea, Australia, South Africa, Alaska, Texas, and the east coast of the U.S. 
• Key features:
  • It is a photosynthetic species with several oval to round yellow-brown chloroplasts, each with a pyrenoid. The large ellipsoidal nucleus is located in the left hypothecal lobe.
  • It can adapt to various light, temperature, salinity, and nutrient conditions.

About Election of  Vice President of India:

• The Vice-President is elected by an electoral college consisting of members of both Houses of Parliament, in accordance with the system of proportional representation by means of the single transferable vote, and the voting in such election is by secret ballot.
• The Electoral College to elect a person to the office of the Vice-President consists of all members of both Houses of Parliament.
  • The electoral college for electing the President of India comprises only the elected members of Parliament and State Legislative Assemblies.
• The Vice-President is not a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of a Legislature of any state.
• If a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of a Legislature of any state is elected as Vice-President, he is deemed to have vacated his seat in that House on the date he/she enters his office as Vice-President.
• A person cannot be elected as Vice-President unless he
  • is a citizen of India;
  • has completed the age of 35 years, and
  • is qualified for election as a member of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
• A person is not also eligible if he holds any office of profit under the Government of India or a State Government or any subordinate local authority.
• An election to fill a vacancy caused by the expiry of the term of office of Vice-President is completed before the expiry of the term.
• In case a vacancy arises by reasons of death, resignation or removal or otherwise, the election to fill that vacancy is held as soon as possible after the occurrence.
• The person so elected is entitled to hold office for a full term of 5 years from the date he enters office.
• Under Article 324 of the Constitution of India, the authority to conduct elections to the Office of Vice-President is vested in the Election Commission of India.
• Other Provisions:
  • The Returning Officer usually appointed to conduct the Vice-Presidential elections is the Secretary-General of either House of the Parliament, by rotation.
  • Any person qualified to be elected and intending to stand for election as Vice-President is required to be nominated by at least 20 MPs as proposers and at least 20 MPs as seconders.
  • A candidate seeking election as Vice-President is required to make a security deposit of Rs.15,000/-.
• Disputes regarding Election of the Vice-President:
  • All doubts and disputes arising in connection with the election of the Vice-President are enquired into and decided by the Supreme Court of India, whose decision is final.
  • A petition challenging the election of the Vice-President is heard by a five-judge bench of the Supreme Court of India.

About Tayfun Block-4:

• It is the first hypersonic ballistic missile developed by
• It is the hypersonic version of the Tayfun missile, Turkey's longest-range nationally produced ballistic missile.
  • The term “Hypersonic” refers to a speed at least five times the speed of sound (also called Mach-5).
• Tayfun Block-4 was developed by Turkish defense company Roketsan.
• Features:
  • It is 6.5 meters long and weighs about 2,300 kilograms.
  • It is distinguished by its high speed and advanced manoeuvrability.
  • It has an operational range of up to 800 kilometers, with plans to extend it to 1000 kilometers in the future.
  • The guidance system is based on GPS and GLONASS technologies combined with the inertial system (INS), which guarantees high accuracy, with a maximum error of only 5 meters per shot.
  • The missile is equipped with a fragmentation warhead and uses 'solid composite' fuel, making it suitable for quick and effective strikes against strategic targets such as air defense systems, command centers and critical infrastructures.

About Stable Coins:

• Stablecoins are a type of cryptocurrency whose value is pegged to another asset, such as a fiat currency or gold, to maintain a stable price.
• They strive to provide an alternative to the high volatility of popular cryptocurrencies, making them potentially more suitable for common transactions.
• Stablecoins can be utilized in various blockchain-based financial services and can even be used to pay for goods and services.
• Although the term “stablecoin” is commonly used, there is no guarantee that the asset will maintain a stable value in relation to the value of the reference asset when traded on secondary markets or that the reserve of assets, if there is one, will be adequate to satisfy all redemptions.
• Types of Stablecoins: There are primarily three types of stablecoins: fiat-collateralized, crypto-collateralized, and non-collateralized (algorithmic).
  • Fiat-collateralized stablecoins are pegged to a specific asset, such as a fiat currency. The entity behind the stablecoin maintains a reserve of the asset or assets backing the stablecoin, supporting the value of the digital currency.
  • On the other hand, non-collateralized (algorithmic) stablecoins use software algorithms to automatically adjust the supply of the stablecoin based on demand, aiming to maintain a stable price.

What is Cryptocurrency?

• Cryptocurrencies are digital or virtual currencies in which encryption techniques are used to regulate the generation of their units and verify the transfer of funds.
• These currencies operate independently of a central bank.
• The economic transactions underlying cryptocurrency are decentralized, distributed, and disbursed.
• The first and most famous cryptocurrency, Bitcoin was introduced in 2009.
• Technology:
  • Most cryptocurrencies are built on blockchain technology.
  • Blockchain is a decentralized and distributed database on a peer-to-peer network which works on the basis of a consensus mechanism involving every node (computer) on the network.
  • Blockchain is a peer-to-peer distributed network that records a public history of transactions without actually recording identities of the parties or the transaction details.

About Etruscans:

• The Etruscans were a Mediterranean civilization that flourished between the 8th and 3rd centuries BCE.
• The Etruscans, also known as the Tyrrhenians, inhabited the area that is now
• Their country was called Tuscia, or Etruria.
• Etruria was located in the central part of the Italian peninsula.
• Etruria was bounded on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, on the north by the Arno River, and on the east and south by the Tiber River.
• They had a strong navy and dominated the seas on the western coast of Italy.
• The Etruscans possessed the biggest iron reserves in the whole of the western Mediterranean.
• Many features of Etruscan culture were adopted by the Romans, their successors to power in the peninsula.
• Etruscans were the first in the Mediterranean region to construct a city on the basis of a grid plan.
  • In this plan, most of the streets were laid in a north-south direction with a few streets crossing them from the east-west direction.
  • Romans later followed this plan while laying out military camps and new cities.
• Social Classes:
  • Scholars believe that there were three social classes in ancient Etruria.
  • On the top was a powerful aristocratic, or noble class.
  • Below them was a middle class that consisted of craftsmen, merchants, and sailors.
  • Finally, there was a class of enslaved people.
  • Unlike ancient Greece and Rome, women were considered equal in status to men.
  • Etruscan women were often able to read and were educated.
• Religion:
  • Etruscans believed in a universe controlled by gods. For them, the gods existed in nature as well as in all objects made by humans.
  • Etruscans thought that the gods revealed their presence through natural phenomena such as lightning.
  • Their mythology was different from the Greeks and Romans.
  • However, the gods that they worshiped became similar to important Greek and Roman gods such as Zeus, Hermes, and Athena.
• Decline:
  • The decline of the Etruscan civilization began toward the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 5th century BCE.
  • In 509 BCE the Etruscan kings were forced out of Rome.
  • Their naval superiority ended when the Greeks destroyed their fleet in 474 BCE.
  • By the middle of the 3rd century BCE, Etruscans were taken over by the Romans.
  • Latin, the language of the Romans, replaced Etruscan.
  • By the 1st century BCE, the Etruscan people were completely absorbed by the Roman Empire, and Etruscan culture ceased to exist as a distinct civilization.

About UNESCO:

• It is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN).
• UNESCO was started in 1945 after World War II. It took over from an older group called the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation.
• Its main goal is to help build world peace and safety.
• It does this by encouraging countries to work together in education, arts, sciences, and culture.
• Headquarters: Paris,
• Parent Organisation: United Nations Economic and Social Council.
• UNESCO has 194 member countries and 12 associate members.
• UNESCO focuses on five main areas:
  • Education
  • Natural sciences
  • Social and human sciences
  • Culture
  • Communication and information
• It supports member states’ efforts to eliminate illiteracy, encouraging the extension of free education, and acts as a clearinghouse for the exchange of ideas and knowledge.
• It also works with many other groups, including non-governmental organizations and private companies.
• UNESCO designates and maintains a list of World Heritage Sites, which are places of outstanding universal value that deserve protection for future generations.
• UNESCO is part of the United Nations Sustainable Development Group. 

Key Reports Published by UNESCO:

• Global Education Monitoring Report
• The United Nations World Water Development Report
• World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development.

About Winter Fog Experiment:

• It was launched in the winter of 2015 at Indira Gandhi International Airport (IGIA), New Delhi.
• It was led by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM) under the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), with support from the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and the National Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (NCMRWF).
• WiFEX is one of the world’s few long-term open-field experiments focused solely on fog — an elusive winter hazard that regularly disrupts air, rail, and road transport across the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
• Objectives of Winter Fog Experiment
  • The objectives of the Winter Fog Experiment (WiFEX) are to develop better now-casting (next 6 hours) and forecasting of winter fog on various time and spatial scales.
  • To help reducing fog’s adverse impact on aviation, transportation and economy, and loss of human life due to accidents
• How was it conducted?
  • WiFEX scientists have deployed advanced instruments, micrometeorology towers, ceilometers, and high-frequency sensors to collect detailed data on temperature layers, humidity, wind, turbulence, soil heat, and aerosols — building an unmatched dataset that reveals how dense fog forms and disperses.
  • These insights have powered the development of a high-resolution (3 km) probabilistic fog prediction model, which now stands among the region’s most advanced tools for operational forecasting.
• Benefits: This model can reliably predict when fog will begin, how dense it will be, how long it will last, and when it will clear — achieving more than 85% accuracy for very dense fog (visibility below 200 meters).

About Ambrosia beetle:

• Ambrosia beetles get their name from the ambrosia fungi that call the beetle their home. The name ‘ambrosia’ is not taxonomic but ecological.
• These beetles are native to Central and South America.
• They were first reportedin India in the cashew trees of Ponda, Goa, in 2012.
• The beetle has been reported to share a mutualistic relationship with two fungal species, Fusarium ambrosia and Fusarium solani.
• How it affects Rubber Tree
  • These beetles attack dead or infected trees, although they’re also known to attack stressed trees.
  • At times, the stressed trees release ethanol, a volatile compound that the ambrosia beetles can sense and attack.
  • The beetles don’t feed on the woody bark of trees; the fungi do.
  • The beetles bore tunnels called galleries in the bark, carry fungi into the galleries, and farm the fungi to concentrate nutrients.
  • The beetles and their larvae feed on nutrient-rich fungal mycelia. The fungi also release enzymes that weaken the wood, allowing beetles to penetrate deeper.
  • In other insect hosts, the fungi are present in sacs called mycangia.
  • The beetle-fungus association harms trees in many ways. Aside from weakening the structure, the duo causes severe leaf fall, trunk drying, and in some cases even tree death. The infection also affects total latex production from rubber trees, causing economic and agricultural losses.
• Prevention Techniques: To combat the infection, experts follow specific methods, such as using antifungal agents, removing the infected part of trees, burning or chipping away any part that displays holes, and preventive measures such as using traps for ambrosia beetles.

About IUCN World Conservation Congress:

• It is the largest gathering of nature conservation experts, leaders and decision-makers in the world.
• It will help shape global priorities for nature conservation and climate change for the coming decade and beyond.
• It is held once-every-four-years.
• It has three components 
  • Forum: It is the largest knowledge marketplace for conservation and sustainable development science, practice and innovation. 
  • Exhibition: In the Exhibition, IUCN Members and Commissions, businesses, partners, and academia host pavilions, booths and events. 
  • Member’s Assembly: It is IUCN’s highest decision-making body. During the Assembly, IUCN’s Member organisations vote on pressing conservation and sustainable development issues.
• Theme of IUCN Congress 2025: Under the theme “Powering transformative conservation”, the IUCN Congress 2025 will tackle five critical themes, each driving the bold, transformative change needed to secure a sustainable future for both nature and humanity.

What is IUCN?

• IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) is a membership Union of government and civil society organisations.
• It was created in 1948, IUCN is now the world’s largest and most diverse environmental network, harnessing the knowledge, resources. 
• Governance of IUCN
  • President and Council: The council is IUCN’s principal governing body in between sessions of the World Conservation Congress. The IUCN President presides over the IUCN Council.
  • IUCN World Conservation Congress: The Members’ Assembly of the IUCN World Conservation Congress is IUCN’s highest governing body. IUCN Members discuss strategic topics, adopt motions defining IUCN’s general policy, approve the IUCN programme, amend IUCN’s statutes and elect the IUCN Council.
  • IUCN Statutes: It lays out the governance of IUCN.

About Fusariosis in Pineapple:

• Fusariosis is caused by the aggressive fungusFusarium moniliforme and one of the biggest threats to pineapple farming.
• The fungus warps the plant’s stem, blackens the leaves and rots the fruit from the inside out. For farmers, this means heavy losses and unreliable harvests.

Highlights of the research

• For years, traditional breeding techniques have struggled to keep up with the fast-evolving onslaught of such fungal foes.
• Scientists have identified the gene behind Somatic Embryogenesis Receptor Kinase (SERK) that can activate host defenses against plant diseases.
• Focusing on the AcSERK3 gene, part of the pineapple’s genetic code, known for helping plants both reproduce and survive stress, enhanced—or "overexpressed" the gene in pineapple plants.
• This genetic tweak charged the plant’s natural defences, allowing it to fight off the Fusarium fungus far more effectively than ordinary varieties.

Key Facts about Pineapple

• The pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.) is the most economically significant fruit of the Bromeliaceae family.
• Required climatic conditions:
  • It is mostly grown at low elevations in areas with a temperature range of 15 to 30ºC.
  • It is tolerant to drought because of the special water storage cells.
  • Rain: It can be grown with a wide range of rainfall from 600-2500 mm/ annum, the optimum being 1000-1500 mm.
  • Soil: It can be grown in a wide range of soils, but does not tolerate water logging.
  • It can be grown as a pure crop on plantation scale or as an intercrop in coconut gardens.
• Major Pineapple producing states: The states where pineapple is grown include Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Manipur, West Bengal, Kerala, Karnataka and Goa. 
• Countries like Thailand, Philippines, Brazil, China, Nigeria, Mexico, Indonesia, Colombia and the USA produce pineapples.

About SASCI Scheme:

• Special Assistance to States for Capital Investment Development of Iconic Tourist Centres to Global Scale’(SASCI) has the objective to comprehensively develop iconic tourist centres in the country, branding and marketing them at global scale.
• Salient features of SASCI Scheme: It has an endeavor of developing end to end tourist experience, funding support to the shortlisted proposals, strengthening all points of the tourist value chain, harnessing quality expertise for design and development, sustainable operations and maintenance etc.
• Under this scheme projects have been identified based on the project proposals submitted by the concerned State Governments.
• Parameters: Examination on the prescribed parameters such as connectivity to the site, tourism eco-system, carrying capacity, sustainability measures, sustainable operation and management, project impact and value created, tourism marketing plans etc.
• Time Period: The projects are implemented and managed by the concerned State Government and projects are to be developed and completed within maximum 2 year’s period
• Funding: Government of India will release funds under this scheme up to 31st March, 2026.

About Bima Sakhi Yojana:

• It is an initiative of the Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC).
• It is a performance-oriented stipendiary scheme exclusively for women.
• It is designed to empower women aged 18-70 years, who are Class X pass.
• They will receive specialized training and a stipend for the first three years to promote financial literacy and insurance awareness.
• Female agents will get a stipend of 7,000 per month for the first year, Rs. 6,000 per month in the second year, and Rs. 5,000 per month in the third year.
• Bima Sakhis will also get commissions. They will receive a commission of Rs 48,000 (excluding bonus) for the first year.
• After training, they can serve as LIC agents, and the graduate Bima Sakhis would have the opportunity to qualify for being considered for Development Officer roles in LIC.
• The plan is to appoint two lakh Bima Sakhi over a period of three years.
• Eligibility:
  • Women must be aged between 18 and 70.
  • The minimum qualification of a woman must be 10th grade passed.
  • Preference will be given to women residing in rural areas.
• The following women are ineligible to apply for this scheme:
  • Women related to existing agents and employees of LIC. Relatives include spouses, children, adopted and stepchildren, parents, sisters, brothers, and immediate in-laws.
  • Women should not be retired employees and ex-agents of LIC.
  • Women should not be existing agents of LIC.

About International Seabed Authority (ISA):

• It is an autonomous international organization established under the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1994 Agreement).
• ISA, which has its headquarters in Kingston, Jamaica, came into existence on 16 November 1994, upon the entry into force of UNCLOS.
• Mandate: To regulate mining and related activities in the international seabed beyond national jurisdiction.
  • The international seabed area — the part which is under ISA jurisdiction — is the seabed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
  • The international seabed area covers around 54 percent of the total area of the world’s oceans.
• ISA is the organization through which states parties to UNCLOS organize and control all mineral-resources-related activities in the international seabed area for the benefit of humankind as a whole.
• In so doing, ISA has the mandate to ensure the effective protection of the marine environment from harmful effects that may arise from deep-seabed-related activities.
• Membership:
  • In accordance with UNCLOS, Article 156(2), all States Parties to UNCLOS are members of ISA.
  • ISA has 169 members, including 168 member States and the European Union.
• Structure:
  • The supreme authority of the ISA is the assembly, in which all ISA members are represented.
  • The assembly sets general policies, establishes budgets, and elects a 36-member council, which serves as the ISA’s executive authority.
  • The council approves contracts with private corporations and government entities for exploration and mining in specified areas of the international seabed.
  • The council oversees implementation of the seabed provisions of the UNCLOS and establishes provisional rules and procedures (subject to approval by the assembly) by which the ISA exercises its regulatory authority.
  • The secretary-general of the ISA is nominated by the council and is elected by the assembly to a four-year term.

Key Facts about United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS):

• UNCLOS, also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities.
• It lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world’s oceans and seas, establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources.
• UNCLOS became effective on 16th November 1982.
• UNCLOS covers a wide range of issues, including:
  • The definition of maritime zones, such as the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the exclusive economic zone, and the continental shelf.
  • The rights and responsibilities of coastal states and flag states.
  • The conservation and management of marine resources.
  • The protection of the marine environment.
  • The peaceful settlement of disputes.

About Dharmasthala Manjunatheshwara Temple:

• It is a Hindu temple located in the town of Dharmasthala in Karnataka.
• It is dedicated to Lord Shiva, who here is worshipped as Lord Manjunatha.
• The temple dates back 800 years.
• It has Madhwa Vaishnava priests and is administered by a hereditary Jain family, the Heggades.
• Architecture:
  • The temple has been built following the Kerala temple architecture.
  • Kerala-style temples are different from temples in other South Indian temple architecture, and the Manjunatha Dharmasthala temple reflects this differentiation.
  • Materials used in building the temple are wood, clay, stone, metals, and laterite. The base structure is made up of granite and laterite.
  • The temple has a square plan, and therefore a pyramidal sloping roof.
  • The wooden roof is covered in gold-plated copper plates to protect the inner skeletal framework.
  • Wooden pillars support the front pavilion of the temple.

About Kashi Declaration:

• It was adopted at the Youth Spiritual Summit, held under the theme ‘Drug-free Youth for Developed India’ at the Rudraksh International Convention Centre in Varanasi.
• The summit was organised by the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports.
• The summit brought together over 600 youth leaders from more than 120 spiritual and socio-cultural organisations, along with academicians, experts, and government representatives.
• The event was a moment in India’s pursuit of a drug-free society by 2047, uniting spiritual strength with youthful resolve.
• The Kashi Declaration calls for treating substance abuse as a complex public health and societal challenge.
  • It recommends a whole-of-government and whole-of-society approach, integrating efforts from spiritual, educational, technological, and cultural domains.
  • It proposed institutional mechanisms for multi-ministerial coordination, including the formation of a Joint National Committee, annual progress reporting, and a national platform for linking affected individuals to support services.

About Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC):

• It is the international food standards-setting body.
• It was established jointly by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) in May 1963.
• Objective: Protecting consumer’s health and ensuring fair practices in the food trade.
• It has its headquarters in Rome.
• Membership:
  • Membership of the Commission is open to all Member Nations and Associate Members of FAO and WHO which are interested in international food standards.
  • Currently the CAC has 189 Codex Members made up of 188 Member Countries and 1 Member Organization (The European Union).
  • India became a member of CAC in 1964.
• The CAC consists of the following main organizational elements:
  • Commission;
  • Executive Committee;
  • Codex Secretariat;
  • Codex subsidiary bodies.
• The Commission meets in regular session once a year, alternating between Geneva and Rome.
• Funding: The programme of work of the Commission is funded through the regular budgets of WHO and FAO, with all work subject to approval of the two governing bodies of the parent organisations.

What is Codex Alimentarius?

• The Codex Alimentarius, or “Food Code”, is a collection of international standards, guidelines, and codes of practice to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the food trade.
• Codex standards are used worldwide to harmonize national food safety regulations and are recognized in the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures as the international reference point for food safety.
• When food producers and traders comply with Codex standards, consumers can trust the safety and quality of the products they buy, and importers can have confidence that the food they ordered will meet the specifications.
• The standards are adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.

Codex Alimentarius and India:

• The National Codex Contact Point (NCCP) of India has been constituted by the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) for keeping liaison with the Codex Alimentarius and to coordinate Codex activities in India.
• NCCP for India coordinates and promotes Codex activities in India in association with the National Codex Committee and facilitates India’s input to the work of Codex through an established consultation process.

About Meri Panchayat App:

• It is designed to provide a unified digital governance platform for rural areas, catering to residents, functionaries, and stakeholders of the Panchayati Raj Institution system.
• This platform integrates and consolidates diverse functions and information currently dispersed across multiple government portals into a single, seamless web-based interface.
• It fosters a more accountable and participatory governance ecosystem for rural communities.
• It is an initiative of the Ministry of Panchayati Raj and National Informatics Centre (NIC) under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.  
• Through Meri Panchayat App, citizens can effortlessly access, on their mobile devices:
  • Real-time Panchayat budgets, receipts, payments and development plans 
  • Details of elected representatives and functionaries 
  • Information on public infrastructure and civic services in their Panchayat
  • Gram Panchayat Development Plans (GPDPs) and track project proposals
  • Weather forecasting at Gram Panchayat level
  • Social audit tools, fund utilization data, and grievance redressal with geo-tagged and geo-fenced features
  • Multilingual interface supporting 12+ Indian languages to ensure inclusiveness
  • The app also enables citizens to propose new projects, review and rate implemented works, and access Gram Sabha agendas and decisions, thereby strengthening participatory democracy and civic engagement.

What is the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Prize?

• It was developed in response to requests from the WSIS stakeholders to create an effective mechanism to evaluate projects and activities that leverage the power of information and communication technologies (ICTs) to advance sustainable development.

About Cy-TB Test:

• It is a new intradermal test for detecting and treating tuberculosis (TB) infection.
• It is a third-generation test approved by the Central TB Division, Government of India.
• It is the current recommendation for use of the Cy-tb skin test under the NTEP program for age 18 years and above.
• How does it work?
  • Cy-TB is a highly specific, accurate and user-friendly skin test, wherein 0.1 ml doses of tuberculosis-specific antigens (ESAT-6 and CFP-10) are injected into the skin in the inner forearm.
  • An induration (a raised area) of 5 mm or more which develops on the skin within 48-72 hours indicates TB infection.

What is TB?

• TB is caused by bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and it most often affects the lungs. TB is spread through the air when people with lung TB cough, sneeze or spit. A person needs to inhale only a few germs to become infected.
• According to the World Health Organization’s Global Tuberculosis Report 2024, India continues to lead in the global TB burden (26% of cases) and is also the hub for drug-resistant TB (DR-TB) and TB deaths.
• TB is the leading cause of death of people with HIV and also a major contributor to antimicrobial resistance.

About Hatti Tribe:

• The Hattis are a close-knit community who take their name from their traditional occupation of selling home-grown crops, vegetables, meat, and wool at small-town markets known as ‘haats’.
• Hatti men traditionally don a distinctive white headgear on ceremonial occasions.
• These tribal people reside in the Himachal-Uttarakhand border in the basin of the Giri and Tons rivers, both tributaries of the Yamuna.
• There are two main Hatti clans: one in the Trans-Giri area of the Sirmaur district in Himachal Pradesh and the other in Jaunsar Bawar of Uttarakhand.
• The two Hatti clans have similar traditions, and intermarriages are common.
• They are governed by a traditional council called ‘khumbli’ which decides community matters.
• Economy: The Hatti population relies on agriculture for livelihood and bare subsistence since their climate is ideal for growing “Cash Crops.”
• Population: According to the 2011 census, members of the community numbered 2.5 lakh, but at present population of the Hattis are estimated at around 3 lakhs.
• In 2023, the Indian government granted Scheduled Tribe (ST) status to the Hatti community in Himachal Pradesh.
• The Jaunsar- Bawar region of Uttarakhand was granted tribal status in 1967.

About Guryul Ravine Fossil Site:

• Location: The Guryul Ravines is located in Kashmir, geologically known as the Vihi district,
• It consists of a repository of fossils that hold evidence of the Permian–Triassic extinction event, dating as far back as 260 million years.
• These preserve clear evidence of the catastrophic Permian–Triassic mass extinction, which wiped nearly all life on Earth.
• It also hosts what geologists believe is the world’s first-ever recorded tsunami event, its imprint still visible in the exposed rock layers.
• The site lies near Dachigam National Park and falls within the sensitive Khonmoh Conservation Reserve area.
• Threats: Despite its unique status and scientific importance, the Guryul Ravine has suffered years of damage due to unchecked quarrying, construction, and other human interventions.

What is the Permian–Triassic extinction event?

• It is also known as the End-Permian Extinction or, colloquially, the ‘Great Dying’.
• The Permian-Triassic extinction event marked the boundaries between the Permian and Triassic geological periods, as well as between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras approximately 251.9 million years ago.
• It was one of the major extinction events that the planet ever saw, when biodiversity decreased rapidly and across wide stretches.

About AdFalciVax Vaccine:

• It is a recombinant vaccine, meaning parts of the genes that encode for targets are inserted into a cell, the target proteins are expressed, and then used to trigger an immune response.
• It is developed in collaboration with its Regional Medical Research Centre in Bhubaneswar (RMRCBB), the National Institute of Malaria Research (NIMR), and the Department of Biotechnology’s National Institute of Immunology (DBT-NII).
• It is being produced using Lactococcus lactis, a safe, food-grade bacterium.
• Unlike existing vaccines that focus on a single stage of the parasite, AdFalciVax combines antigenic components targeting both the pre-erythrocytic and sexual stages.
• This dual approach aims to protect individuals from infection and simultaneously reduce community transmission via mosquito vectors.
• The vaccine contains the genetic material of two targets — one for a major protein called CSP found on the surface of the malaria parasite and another for a combination of parts of two proteins that affect the pathogen’s lifecycle.
• Advantages of AdFalciVax Vaccine
  • Unlike existing WHO-recommended vaccines RTS,S/AS01 (Mosquirix) and R21/Matrix-M, AdFalciVax offers dual-stage protection and is cost-effective.
  • The formulation remains potent for over nine months at room temperature, eliminating the need for costly cold chain logistics, which continue to be a major bottleneck in vaccine distribution across remote and resource-limited regions.

About King Rajendra Chola I:

• Rajendra Chola I, often described as Rajendra the Great, was a Chola emperor who ruled between 1014 and 1044 CE.
• Rajendra succeeded his father, Rajaraja I, in 1014 CE.
• He was also known as Gangaikonda Cholan, meaning "Bringer of the Ganges River". Another title was Kadaram Kondan, which means "Conqueror of Kedah".
• Military Campaigns:
  • During his reign, he extended the influences of the already vast Chola empire to the banks of the river Ganges in the north and across the ocean.
  • He commanded the largest blue water navy in Indian history.
  • Rajendra’s territories extended to coastal Burma, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, and the Maldives, conquering the kings of Srivijaya (Sumatra, Java, and Malaya in South East Asia) and the Pegu Islands with his fleet of ships.
  • He defeated Mahipala, the Pala king of Bengal and Bihar.
  • Tamil Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.
  • Rajendra stood as the first Indian king to take his armies overseas.
• In order to commemorate his victory to the Ganges and over the northern kings, Rajendra Chola I assumed the title of ‘Gangaikondachola’ and had a temple dedicated to Lord Shiva built, which he named ‘Gangaikondacholeshwaram Mahadev’.
• He also founded the city of ‘Gangaikondacholapuram’ and shifted his capital there from Thanjavur.
  • It was a major center for trade for many centuries.
• The Chola Empire under him became one of the wealthiest empires of the time, developing connections with Song China in the east and the Arabs in the west.
• A hallmark of the Chola dynasty under his rule was the promotion of local self-governance, setting a unique example in administrative excellence.
• Religion: Rajendra followed Shaivism (a branch of Hinduism). However, he also welcomed Buddhism and built many stupas (Buddhist shrines) in South-East Asia and South India.
• Rajendra Chola I was followed by his son Rajadhiraja I.

About Shettihalli Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the Shimoga District of
• It was declared a wildlife sanctuary on 23rd November 1974.
• It spans an area of 395.6 square kilometres.
• Inside the sanctuary is located the Tunga Anicut Dam, which shelters otters and water birds.
• Mandagadde Natural Bird Sanctuary, present on a small island in the River Tunga, is also a part of this sanctuary.
• There are a large number of human settlements inside Shettihalli Sanctuary, mainly consisting of families that were displaced by the construction of the Sharavathi Dam in the 1960s.
• Vegetation: The vegetation in the region mainly consists of dry deciduous, moist deciduous, and semi-evergreen types.
• Flora: Major tree species include silver oak, teak, Indian Thorny Bamboo, Calcutta Bamboo, Asan, Tectona Grandis, Sweet Indrajao, Amla, etc.
• Fauna:
  • It houses mammals like Tiger, Leopard, Wild Dog, Jackal, Gaur, Elephant, Sloth Bear Sambar, Spotted Deer, Wild Pig, Common Langur, Bonnet Macaque, etc.
  • Birds include Hornbills, Kingfishers, Bulbuls, Parakeets, Doves, Pigeons, Babblers, Flycatchers, Munias, Swallows, Woodpeckers, Peafowl, Jungle fowl and Partridges.

About Pale-Capped Pigeon:

• The pale-capped pigeon, also known as the purple wood pigeon, is a large, dark purplish-maroon bird that is found in parts of the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia.
• Scientific Name: Columba punicea
• Distribution: It is very locally distributed across its broad range, which encompasses parts of northern and northeastern India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
• Habitat:
  • It largely inhabits forest habitats, chiefly, primary or secondary evergreen forests, and bamboo and agricultural fields in close proximity to forests.
  • Its range extends from the lowlands up to 1,600 m.
• Features:
  • It is mainly brown above and chestnut below with a sheen of green or amethyst.
  • Males have a whitish-grey-cap while females have a brownish-grey-cap and less gloss on the feathers.
  • They are frugivores, foraging in small groups in the canopy of trees but sometimes descending to the ground for seeds and fallen fruit.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Vulnerable

Key Facts about Dehing Patkai National Park:

• It is located in the Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts of Assam.
• It is situated at the foothills of the Patkai Hill Ranges, on the banks of the River Dehing (a tributary of Brahmaputra), and adjacent to the Namdapha Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Also known as the ‘Amazon of the East’, it harbours the longest stretch of tropical lowland rainforests in India.
• It covers an area of 231.65 sq.km.
• The climate of the region is mostly tropical, with an annual rainfall of more than 4,000 mm.
• There are more than a dozen different ethnic groups living in the area, including the indigenous Assamese communities, particularly Tai Phake, Khamyang, Khampti, Singpho, Nocte, Ahom, Kaibarta, Moran, and Motok, Burmese, and non-indigenous Nepali people.
• Vegetation: The park is a deciduous rainforest with semi-evergreen and lush green flora.
• Flora: It is dominated by species like Hollong, Nahor, Mekai, Paroli, Simul, various orchids, ferns, cane, and bamboo.
• Fauna: The rich biodiversity includes diverse species such as slow loris, pig-tailed macaque, stump-tailed macaque, capped langur, Indian leopard, Asian elephant, royal Bengal tiger, gaur, Himalayan black bear, clouded leopard, barking deer, Chinese pangolin, etc.

About Chikungunya:

• It is a mosquito-borne viral disease caused by the Chikungunya Virus (CHIKV).
• It causes fever and severe joint pain.
• The word comes from the African Makonde language and means "bent over in pain."
• It was first described during an outbreak in southern Tanzania in 1952 and has now been reported in more than 110 countries in Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Europe.
• Transmission:
  • It is transmitted to humans by the bites of infected female mosquitoes, most commonly Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes.
  • These two species can also transmit other viruses, including dengue and Zika viruses.
  • An infected person cannot spread the infection directly to other persons (i.e., it is not a contagious disease).
• Symptoms:
  • The symptoms of chikungunya are similar to those of dengue and Zika, making chikungunya easy to misdiagnose.
  • The most common symptom is an abrupt onset of fever, often accompanied by joint pain.
  • Other symptoms include muscle pain, headache, nausea, fatigue, and rash.
  • Severe joint pain usually lasts a few days but can persist for months or even years.
  • Serious complications are uncommon, but atypical severe cases can cause long-term symptoms and even death, especially in older people and in children under one year old.
• Treatment:
  • There is no vaccine or antiviral drug treatment for chikungunya.
  • Treatment is focused on relieving the symptoms.

About Tuvalu:

• Tuvalu, formerly known as the Ellice Islands, is an island country located midway between Hawaii and Australia in the west-central Pacific Ocean.
• Its neighbours include Kiribati, to the north, and Fiji, to the south.
• It comprises nine islands (four reef islands and five coral atolls) scattered in a chain lying approximately northwest to southeast over a distance of some 420 miles (676 km).
• All islands are low-lying, with no point on Tuvalu being higher than 4.5 m above sea level. Thus, the islands are threatened by any future sea level rise.
• There are no rivers. Tuvalu’s climate is hot and rainy.
• With the exception of tiny Vatican City, Tuvalu has the fewest inhabitants of any other independent nation.
• Capital: Funafuti
• Languages: Most people speak a language called Tuvaluan. English is also common.
• Economy:
  • Most people are subsistence farmers and are aided by remittances from relatives working overseas.
  • A small quantity of copra is produced for export, the sale of stamps accounts for modest earnings, and fees are collected from foreign fishing fleets.
• Political Overview:
  • Tuvalu became independent from the United Kingdom in October 1978.
  • It operates as a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy.
  • It is part of the Commonwealth Realm, with King Charles III recognized as King of Tuvalu. He is represented by a Governor-General, who is appointed upon the advice of the Prime Minister.
  • There are no political parties: the prime minister is chosen by and from the legislature.

About Lyriothemis abrahami :

• It is a new species of dragonfly discovered in Kerala.
• Habitat: It breeds in small water pools in tree holes.
• Features of Lyriothemis abrahami : It exhibits strong dimorphism, with males featuring uniquely shaped hamules and female displaying jet black bodies with yellow triangular spots.
• Distribution: Its distribution spanned from lowland rainforests to mid-elevation evergreen and deciduous forests between 50 m and 1,100 m above sea level.
• The finding increased Kerala’s odonate species count to 191, including 78 endemic species,
• Ecological Significance:
  • The dragonfly is an indicator of forest health, stressing habitat conservation’s broader ecological benefits.
  • Dragonflies are among the apex predators of the insect world and are considered to be responsible for regulating the numbers of many other insect species.
  • They are crucial insect predators that help regulate mosquito and pest populations in urban areas.

About Kamchatka Peninsula:

• Location: It lies in far eastern Russia, between the Sea of Okhotsk on the west and the Pacific Ocean and Bering Sea on the east.
• It is one of the world’s most concentrated areas of geothermal activity.
• It is part of the Kamchatka Krai. Kamchatka, also known as a land of fire and ice, sits on the Pacific Ring of Fire and is home to over 150 volcanoes, including 29 active volcanoes.
• It is about 1,200 km long north-south and about 480 km across at its widest.
• Area: Approximately 370,000 square km.
• About the size of New Zealand, it is one of the largest peninsulas in the world.
• Population: About 300,000 people live on the peninsula. The population density is one of the lowest in the world, at less than a person per square kilometre. 
• Climate: Severe, with prolonged, cold, and snowy winters and wet, cool summers.
• Highest Point: The Klyuchevskaya Sopka in the Eastern Range is the highest point on the Kamchatka Peninsula. 
• Regional Capital: Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
• The Kuril island chain runs from the southern tip of the peninsula to a short distance from Japan’s northern Hokkaido Island.

About Bedouins:

• The Bedouins are traditionally nomadic, Arabic-speaking tribes who have inhabited the deserts of the Middle East and North Africa for centuries.
• The word Bedouin derives from the Arabic badawi, meaning "desert dweller".
• These communities historically survived by herding livestock, primarily camels, sheep, and goats, while navigating seasonal migrations across vast arid landscapes.
• These tribes have traditionally been classified according to the animal species that are the basis of their livelihood. 
• In Syria, Bedouins have primarily lived in the expansive Al-Badia desert, which covers much of the country's south and east, including provinces like Sweida, Homs, and Deir ez-Zor.
• Society: Bedouin society is tribal and patriarchal, typically composed of extended families that are patrilineal, endogamous, and polygynous.
• The head of the family, as well as of each successively larger social unit making up the tribal structure, is called sheikh; the sheikh is assisted by an informal tribal council of male elders.

About Invictus:

• It is a research programme with the goal of developing hypersonic technologies applicable to future reusable vehicles capable of horizontal launch.
• Funding: It is funded through ESA’s General Support Technology Programme(GSTP) and Technology Development Element (TDE)
• It is a fully reusable experimental aerospace vehicle capable of flying at Mach 5 (five times the speed of sound).
• The vehicle will demonstrate key technologies for sustained hypersonic flight in the atmosphere and will be upgradable, allowing for the exchange of materials, software and propulsion systems between flight test campaigns.
• INVICTUS builds on previous technology developments managed by ESA and will offer industry, agencies and academia an opportunity to test future hypersonic technologies in a relevant environment.
• Significance: The INVICTUS programme will prove the suitability of a hydrogen-fuelled precooled air-breathing propulsion system for horizontal take-off and hypersonic flight.

About Slovenia:

• It occupies the Central and South Eastern Europe
• Bordering countries: It is bordered by 4 countries: Austria in the north; Hungary in the northeast; Italy in the west; and Croatia in the southeast. Slovenia also shares a small coastline along the Adriatic Sea in the southwest.
• Slovenia has a highly elevated terrain with over 40% of the country being mountainous.
• It is made up of portions of four major European geographic landscapes—the European Alps, the karstic Dinaric Alps, the Pannonian and Danubian lowlands and hills, and the Mediterranean coast.
• Climate: Mediterranean climate on the coast, continental climate with mild to hot summers and cold winters in the plateaus and valleys to the east.
• Highest point: Mount Triglav
• Natural Resources: Lignite, lead, zinc, building stone, hydropower, forests
• Economy: Slovenia has a developed market economy based primarily on services and trade. Its main industries include the manufacture of automotive parts, pharmaceuticals, and electrical appliances.
• River: Major rivers include the Drava and Sava.
• Capital City: Ljubljana.