About Mithi River:

• Mithi river is one of the four rivers flowing through the Mumbai city, Maharashtra.
• The river originates from the overflow of Vihar Lake and also receives the overflows from the Powai Lake about 2 km downstream.
• It flows for 18 km before discharging into the Arabian Sea at Mahim Creek, flowing through residential and industrial complexes of Powai, Saki Naka, Kurla, Kalina, Vakola, Bandra Kurla Complex, Dharavi and Mahim.
• The river has an average width of 5 metres in the upper reaches, has been widened to 25 m in the middle reaches and up to 70 m in the lower reaches after the 26 July 2005 deluge (944 mm in 24 h on 26 July 2005)
• It is a seasonal river, which feeds on the monsoons.

About Blue Carbon:

• Blue Carbon refers to organic carbon captured and stored by the ocean in vegetated coastal ecosystems such as mangrove forests, saltmarshes, or seagrass meadows.
• “Blue” refers to the watery nature of this storage.
• The vast majority of blue carbon is carbon dioxide that has dissolved directly into the ocean.
• Much smaller amounts are stored in underwater sediments, coastal vegetation, and soils; carbon-containing molecules, such as DNA and proteins; and ocean life from whales to phytoplankton.
• These ecosystems store massive amounts of carbon, making them an integral part of global efforts to combat climate change.
• They cover just 2% of the total ocean surface but account for 50% of the ocean’s carbon absorption.

About Jeju Island:

• Jejudo (also known as Jeju Island) is a volcanic island.
• With a surface area of 1,846 sq.km., it is the largest island 130 km off the coast of the Korean Peninsula and the main island of Jeju Province of South Korea.
• It lies in the East China Sea 60 miles (100 km) southwest of South Jeolla province, of which it once was a part. The provincial capital is the city of Jeju.
• Oval in shape, Jeju Island measures 40 miles (64 km) from east to west and 16 miles (26 km) from north to south.
• The island contains the natural World Heritage Site Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes.
• A central feature of Jeju is Hallasan, the tallest mountain in South Korea and a dormant volcano, which rises 1,950 m above sea level. 360 satellite volcanoes are around the main volcano.

About Huntington's Disease:

• It is a genetic condition that affects the cells in your brain.
• It is an inherited condition that causes brain cells to slowly lose function and die.
• If one of your parents has HD, you have a 50% chance of also developing it.
• It affects the cells in parts of your brain that regulate voluntary movement and memory.
• What causes Huntington’s disease?
  • A genetic mutation of the HTT gene causes Huntington’s disease.
  • The HTT gene makes a protein called huntingtin. This protein helps your nerve cells (neurons) function.
  • If you have HD, your DNA doesn’t have all the information needed to make the huntingtin protein.
  • As a result, these proteins grow in an abnormal shape and destroy (instead of help) your neurons.
  • Your neurons die because of this genetic mutation.
  • The destruction of nerve cells happens in the basal ganglia, or the region of your brain that regulates your body’s movements.
  • It also affects the brain cortex (surface of your brain) that regulates your thinking, decision-making, and memory.
• How common is HD?
  • Huntington’s disease affects an estimated 3 to 7 out of every 100,000 people, most often people of European ancestry (biological family comes from European descent).
• Symptoms:
  • Common symptoms include uncontrollable dance-like movements (chorea) and abnormal body postures, as well as problems with behavior, emotion, thinking, and personality.
  • Other symptoms may include tremor (unintentional back-and-forth movement in the person’s muscles) and unusual eye movements. The eye movements can happen early in the disease.
  • These symptoms get worse over time.
  • As HD progresses, you will need constant assistance and supervision because of the debilitating nature of the disease.
  • People usually die from the disease within 15 to 20 years of developing symptoms.
• Treatment:
  • There is no treatment that can stop or reverse HD, but health care providers can offer medications to help with certain symptoms.

About Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR):

• It is the apex body of the Government of India for research in the social and human sciences.
• It was established in the year 1969 by the Government of India on the recommendation of Prof. V. K. R. V. Rao Committee.
• It is an autonomous organisation working under the aegis of the Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Education.
• ICSSR plays a pivotal role in advancing knowledge and understanding of various social issues and challenges, and providing research-based solutions to policymakers and stakeholders in the development of the nation through initiatives and schemes such as
  • research projects
  • doctoral, postdoctoral, senior fellowships, and national fellowships
  • research internships; training and capacity building of early career researchers
  • publication grants
  • national and international seminars, conferences, and workshops
  • publication of cutting-edge research
  • national and international collaboration
  • promotion of social science and humanities research through research institutes, recognised institutes, and regional centres.
• An all-India network of 24 frontline research institutes and six regional centres is maintained, and five recognized institutes are programmatically supported by the ICSSR.
• The Documentation center of ICSSR – National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC)-provides library and information support services to researchers in social sciences.
• ICSSR has developed the ICSSR Data Service to serve as a national data service for promoting a powerful research environment through sharing and reuse of data among the social science community in India.

About Euglena:

• Euglena is a unicellular, flagellated microorganism belonging to the group Euglenophyta.
• Habitat: These are commonly found in stagnant or slow-moving freshwater ponds, ditches, and urban lakes.
• Characteristics: These protists are highly adaptable, capable of both photosynthesis (like plants) and feeding on organic matter (like animals).
• This flexibility helps them thrive in nutrient-rich, oxygen-poor environments.
• Three of the most common euglenoid genera observed in Indian water bodies are: Euglena, Phacus, Trachelomonas sp. These species often dominate surface waters, especially during warmer months.
• The striking red or pink colour seen during blooms is due to a pigment called astaxanthin, produced by many euglenoids.
  • Astaxanthin is a fat-soluble xanthophyll that gives these organisms their bright red colour.
• Impact of Euglena on Biodiversity:
• Oxygen depletion: Euglena photosynthesises, but at night it consumes oxygen, leading to diurnal oxygen fluctuations. This can result in hypoxia (low oxygen levels), which is dangerous for fish and other aquatic life.
• Dense surface scums: Euglenoid blooms form thick mats on the water surface, which block sunlight from reaching submerged plants. This reduces the lake’s productivity and alters its ecological balance.
• Fish mortality: Euglenophyte blooms can stick to fish gills, making it hard for them to breathe. Some species also produce toxins like euglenophycin, which directly kill fish or indirectly affect them by disrupting the food chain and oxygen levels.

About Dal Lake:

• Location: It is a mid-altitude urban lake located in Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir.
• It is surrounded by the Pir Panjal mountains.
• It is integral to tourism and recreation in Kashmir and is named the “Jewel in the crown of Kashmir” or “Srinagar’s Jewel”.
• It is one of the world’s largest natural lakes and also known as the Lake of Flowers.
• The shoreline of the lake is encompassed by a boulevard lined with Mughal-era gardens, parks, houseboats, and hotels. 
• The wetland is divided by causeways into four basins; Gagribal, Lokut Dal, Bod Dal, and Nagin (although Nagin is also considered an independent lake).
• Lokut-dal and Bod-dal each have an island in the centre, known as Rup Lank (or Char Chinari) and Sona Lank,
• Dal Lake is also popular for the floating market where vendors have their own Shikaras/wooden boats and approach tourists.

Key Facts about Khelo India Water Sports Festival

• It is organised jointly by the Sports Authority of India (SAI) and the J&K Sports Council under the government’s ‘Khelo Bharat’ policy.
• It is aimed at boosting grassroots sports, generating livelihoods, and rejuvenating local infrastructure.
• It is the first consolidated Open-age category championships where all 14 kayaking and canoeing events and the 10 rowing events are Olympic events.

About Charge-Coupled Device:

• It was a pioneering technology that converted light into electrical signals using an array of capacitors that transferred electric charges in a sequence.
• A CCD consists of an integrated circuit made up of an array of small picture elements called pixels.
• Each pixel acts like a small light sensor that collects photons (the particles of light) and converts them into electrical charges.
• These charges are then transferred across the device, one pixel at a time, to be read and processed into a digital image.
• Working of Charge-Coupled Device
  • It operates using the photoelectric effect, where light that falls on the device generates electron-hole pairs in the semiconductor material.
  • Specifically, when photons enter a CCD, they strike the semiconductor material beneath each pixel.
  • This energy knocks electrons loose, creating a small group of electrons proportional to the intensity of light in that pixel.
  • Each pixel is essentially a small capacitor that holds these electrons. The amount of charge in each pixel varies depending on how much light the pixel has received.
  • A voltage is applied to electrodes placed over the pixels in a sequence that moves the charges from one pixel to the next, like passing buckets of water along a line.
  • This is why it’s called a “charge-coupled” device, and this process continues until all the charge has reached a readout register.
  • The accumulated charge from each pixel is then converted into a voltage signal, which can be amplified and digitised by connected electronics to form a digital image.
  • This sequential transfer and reading process allows the CCD to create a precise and high-quality representation of a scene being captured.
• Applications of Charge-Coupled Device
  • Household: CCDs made possible the rise of digital cameras by replacing film with sensors that captured images electronically. They’re also used in CCTV cameras to provide high-quality video feeds for security in places like banks, shopping malls, and hospitals.
  • Medical diagnostics: CCDs play a vital role in medical diagnostics, including in X-ray imaging, computed tomography (CT) scans, and endoscopy.
  • These CCDs are also used in microscopes, spectrometers, and particle detectors where they allow scientists to analyse images in detail.
  • Astronomy: Telescopes fit with CCDs can capture faint and distant celestial objects with more sensitivity and accuracy than traditional photographic plates.

About Lipulekh Pass:

• Location: It is a high-altitude mountain pass located in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand, near the trijunction of India, Nepal, and China.
• It links the Indian state of Uttarakhand with the Tibet region of China.
• Altitude: It lies at an altitude of approximately 5,334 meters (17,500 feet).
• Its elevation and strategic location make it a gateway to the higher reaches of the Himalayas.
• It is the first Indian border post opened for trade with China in 1992.
• This was followed by the opening of Shipki La Pass, Himachal Pradesh in 1994 and Nathu La Pass, Sikkim in 2006.
• Significance of Lipulekh Pass
  • Ancient Trade Route: It has been utilized for centuries as a trade route, connecting the Indian subcontinent with the Tibetan plateau.
  • Religious Significance: It also has religious significance, being an integral part of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, a sacred pilgrimage for Hindus.

About Exercise Samanvay Shakti:

• It is initiated by Indian Army collaboration with state officials of Assam & Manipur to foster efficient cooperation, cohesion and mutual understanding.
• It is a military-civil Integration exercise aimed at fostering synergy between security forces, government departments and civil institutions to address the region’s complex challenges through a unified and coordinated approach.
• The inaugural session witnessed participation from the Indian Army, Indian Air Force, District Administration, Police, Intelligence Agencies, NDRF, SDRF, Medical Officials, BRO & GREF, Railways, educational institutions and security officials from OIL India, IOCL and Coal India alongwith representatives of the local media.
• Objectives of Exercise Samanvay Shakti
  • To take concrete steps towards achieving an improved state of readiness, supported by unhindered channels of communication and refined standard operating procedures through practical rehearsals.
  • It seeks to further strengthen the bond of trust between the people of upper Assam & Manipur and the institutions that serve them, thereby contributing towards preparedness for security challenges, development towards nation building, and reinforcing national integration.

About INS Aridhaman:

• It is the second Arihant-class submarine.
• It is the second nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine (SSBN) being built by India.
• It is being built under the Advanced Technology Vessel (ATV) project to build nuclear submarines at the Ship Building Centre in Visakhapatnam.
• Features:
• It will have a length of 112 m (367 ft) overall, a beam of 15 m (49 ft), and a draft of 10 m (33 ft).
• The complement is about 95, including officers and sailors.
• With a displacement of 7,000 tonnes and a length of 125 metres, it has the capacity to carry a larger number of K-4 missiles.
• Aridhaman will be fitted with a combination of two sonar systems – USHUS and Panchendriya.
  • USHUS is a state-of-the-art sonar meant for Kilo-class submarines.
  • Panchendriya is a unified submarine sonar and tactical control system, which includes all types of sonar (passive, surveillance, ranging, intercept and active).
• It also features an underwater communications system.
• The hull features twin flank-array sonars and Rafael broadband expendable anti-torpedo countermeasures.

About Krishna River:

• It is a river of south-central India.
• One of India’s longest rivers, it has a total course of about 800 miles (1,290 km).
• Course:
  • The river rises in western Maharashtra state in the Western Ghats range near the town of Mahabaleshwar, not far from the coast of the Arabian Sea.
  • It passes through the Indian states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh and meets the Bay of Bengal at Hamasaladeevi in Andhra Pradesh, on the east coast.
• The Krishna River Basin extends over an area of about 258,948 sq. km, which is nearly 8 percent of the total geographical area of the country.
• It is bounded by the Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east, and by the Western Ghats on the west.
• The principal tributaries joining Krishna are the Ghataprabha, the Malaprabha, the Bhima, the Tungabhadra, and the Musi.

About Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary:

• It is located in the eastern region of Guwahati, Assam.
• This wildlife sanctuary was established in 1998 with a total area of 48.81 sq.km.
• The Sanctuary consists of the Rajamayong Reserve Forest and Pobitora Reserve Forest.
• History:
  • Pobitora became a reserved wooded area in the year of 1971 with the approval of the Government of Assam Tourism.
  • The Government of India included Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary with the association of a rhino breeding program named “Indian Rhino Vision 2020”.
• It is known for holding the highest density of Greater One Horned Rhinoceros in the country.
• Flora:
  • 72% of Pabitora consists of the wet savannah of Arundo donax, Erianthus ravennae, Phragmites karka, Imperata cylindrica, and Saccharum spp.
  • Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) is a major problem, especially to waterfowl, as it forms thick mats on the water surface.
• Fauna:
  • Besides rhinoceros, the other animals are leopard, wild boar, Barking deer, wild buffalo, etc.
  • It is also home to more than 2000 migratory birds and various reptiles.

About Kalai-II Hydroelectric Project:

• It is a 1,200 MW hydropower project planned on the Lohit River (a tributary of the Brahmaputra River) in the Anjaw District of Arunachal Pradesh.
• The project is being developed and currently owned by THDC India Limited (formerly Tehri Hydro Development Corporation Limited).
• It is a run-of-river with pondage project.
• The project involves construction of a concrete gravity dam, upstream & downstream coffer dam, diversion tunnel, intake tunnel, pressure Shafts, underground Powerhouse complex, surge chamber, and Tail Race Tunnel, etc.
• The hydro reservoir capacity is planned to be 318.8 million cubic meters.
• The gross head of the project will be 125 m.
• It consists of 6 turbines, each with 190 MW nameplate capacity.

About Didayi Tribe:

• The Didayi tribe, also known as the Didai people or Didiya tribe, is an indigenous tribal community residing in the Malkanagiri district of Odisha.
• They are one of 13 Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG) in Odisha.
• They belong to the Proto-Australoid racial stock.
• They speak a language which has been included under the Austroasiatic language family.
• The Didayi’s social structure is patriarchal, and their religious beliefs are rooted in animism, with a deep reverence for the natural world.
• They live in small, remote forest villages, often in the Eastern Ghats hills.
• Villages have a traditional council of elders that settles disputes.
• Houses are typically thatched huts built with mud walls and bamboo.
• The primary occupation of the Didayi tribe traditionally revolves around agriculture, hunting, gathering, and fishing.

About GIAHS Programme:

• The Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) is a Food and Agriculture Organization’s programme launched at the World Summit for Sustainable Development in 2002.
• It was launched in response to global threats to family farming and traditional agricultural systems, such as climate change, community displacements and
  biodiversity loss.
• It is aiming to strike a balance between conservation, sustainable adaptation and socioeconomic development, the programme helps to mitigate the threats faced by farmers while enhancing the benefits of farming systems.
• It uses a multistakeholder approach, GIAHS provides
• Technical assistance promotes the value of traditional agricultural knowledge and stimulates markets for agricultural products, agrotourism and other market opportunities.

India’s GIAHS

• Koraput region (Odisha): It is renowned for its subsistence paddy cultivation, predominantly on highland slopes, and is home to a vast diversity of paddy landraces and farmer-developed varieties.
• It also harbors rich genetic resources of medicinal plants, deeply interwoven with the indigenous tribal communities and their traditional knowledge systems.
• Kuttanad system (Kerala): It is a unique below-sea-level farming landscape, comprising wetlands for paddy cultivation and fish catching, garden lands for coconut and food crops, and inland water bodies for fishing and shell collection.
• Saffron Park of Kashmir: It represents a rich agro-pastoral system characterized by traditional saffron cultivation, intercropping, and the use of organic farming practices, all of which contribute to maintaining local biodiversity and soil health.

About Quality Council of India:

• It is a non-profit autonomous organisation registered under Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860.
• It was set up in 1997 jointly by the Government of India and the Indian Industry represented by the three premier industry associations, i.e., Associated Chambers of Commerce and Industry of India (ASSOCHAM), Confederation of Indian Industry (CII), and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI).
• It is under the administrative control of the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry.
• Functions of Quality Council of India:
  • It works as the national accreditation body.
  • It has been established to create a mechanism for independent third-party assessment of products, services, and processes.
  • It also promotes the adoption of quality standards relating to Quality Management Systems, Food Safety Management Systems and Product Certification and Inspection Bodies through the accreditation services provided by the National Accreditation Board for Certification Bodies (NABCB). 
  • It plays a pivotal role at the national level in propagating, adoption, and adherence to quality standards in all important spheres of activities.
• Governance of Quality Council of India:
  • QCI functions through the governing body and other executive bodies (boards/committees) for implementing the strategy, policy, and operational guidelines as set out by its governing council.
  • The council comprises 38 members, with equal representation from the Government, Industries and other stakeholders.

About Agni-5 Missile:

• It is a nuclear-capable land-based Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) capability.
• It is developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• Features of Agni-5 Missile
  • Range: It is one of India’s most advanced long-range missiles, capable of striking targets well beyond 5,000 kilometers
  • It is designed with modern navigation, guidance, warhead, and engine technologies and strengthens India’s strategic deterrence capability.
  • Warhead Capacity: It is capable of carrying and firing up to three nuclear warheads simultaneously.

What is a Ballistic Missile?

• It is a rocket-propelled, self-guided strategic-weapons system that follows a ballistic trajectory to deliver a payload from its launch site to a predetermined target.
• They are powered initially by a rocket or series of rockets in stages, but then follow an unpowered trajectory that arches upwards before descending to reach its intended target.
• They can carry conventional high explosives as well as chemical, biological, or nuclear munitions.
• They can be launched from aircraft, ships, and submarines, in addition to land-based silos and mobile platforms.
• There are four general classifications of ballistic missiles based on their range, or the maximum distance the missile can travel:
  • Short-range: less than 1,000 kilometers (approximately 620 miles), also known as “tactical” ballistic missiles.
  • Medium-range: between 1,000 and 3,000 kilometers (approximately 620-1,860 miles), also known as “theater” ballistic missiles.
  • Intermediate-range: between 3,000 and 5,500 kilometers (approximately 1,860-3,410 miles)
  • Long-range: more than 5,500 kilometers (approximately 3,410 miles), also known as intercontinental or strategic ballistic missiles.

About Made in India Label Scheme:

• It is an initiative that lends support to the manufacturing industry by building a brand reputation, stronger identity and wider reach for made in India products. 
• Aim: To strengthen the reputation of the products manufactured in India. It also guarantees authenticity of the products originating from India and/or crafted with locally sourced raw materials.
• This is a voluntary certification scheme to help manufacturers demonstrate that their products are manufactured in India and are of good quality.
• The label displays a QR code and a logowith the information around location of manufacturing, validity of the label and other product specific information.
• The initiative is being led by the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT).
• The Quality Council of India and the India Brand Equity Foundation are actively collaborating with DPIIT in an advisory capacity.
• Objectives of the Made in India Label Scheme
  • The scheme provides identity to the product based on its origin
  • It develops a mechanism to qualify and brand the products of Indian origin
  • It also supports in recognising the products of Indian origin in domestic as well as international market
  • The Made in India Label strength the positioning of the product in the competitive market, as the label would indicate authenticity, quality and differentiation among other products.
• Eligibility Criteria
  • Manufacturers and producers who manufacture or assemble their products wholly or substantially in India.
  • Each product has a specific quality and manufacturing criteria set by relevant regulatory bodies which needs to be met before obtaining the permission.

About Pseudomonas aeruginosa:

• It is a gram-negative, aerobic, non-spore forming rod shaped bacterium.
• It is capable of causing a variety of infections in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts.
• It is commonly found in the environment, particularly in freshwater.
• It can cause a wide array of community-acquired infections like folliculitis, puncture wounds leading to osteomyelitis, pneumonia, otitis externa, and many others.
• It is commonly an opportunistic pathogen and is also an important cause of nosocomial infections like ventilator-associated pneumonia, catheter-associated urinary tract infections, and others.
• Most burn victims succumb to secondary P. aeruginosa infections.
• It is a major cause of keratitis, an eye infection, and also infects urinary catheters.

What is a Bistable expression in Bacteria?

• Two bacterial cells with identical genomes — and even from the same colony — can be quite different from each other.
• One cell might express a particular gene at a high level while the other might express it at a low level or not at all.
• Each bacterium goes on to transmit its expression level to its offspring in a process called epigenetic inheritance.
• Such variations among identical cells and organisms are called bistability.
• Bistability might be a survival strategy that single-celled organisms use to adapt to fluctuating environmental conditions.

About Asian Palm Civet:

• The Asian Palm Civet, also known as the Toddy Cat or Common Palm Civet, is a small, nocturnal mammal that is found throughout South and Southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, and the Philippines.
• It is a member of the Viverridae family, which also includes other civet and mongoose species.
• Scientific Name: Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
• Features:
  • It has a long, slender body, short legs, and a pointed snout.
  • It weighs between 2 to 5 kg (4.4 to 11 lbs) and measures around 53 to 71 cm (21 to 28 inches) in length, including the tail.
  • Its fur is brownish-gray with black spots, and it has a white mask-like marking around its eyes.
  • It is a nocturnal animal and feeds on a variety of prey, including insects, small mammals, and fruits.
  • One of the most distinctive features of Asian palm civets is their ability to digest coffee beans, which makes them an important part of the coffee production process in some countries.
  • They are also known for their strong sense of smell and excellent climbing skills, allowing them to easily climb trees and forage for food.
• Conservation Status:
• • IUCN Red List: Least Concern.

About Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Amendment Bill, 2025:

• The bill will amend the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.
• The Bill provides that leaseholders may apply to the state government for adding other minerals to an existing lease.
  • For inclusion of critical and strategic minerals and other specified minerals, no additional amount needs to be paid.
  • These include minerals such as lithium, graphite, nickel, cobalt, gold, and silver.
• The Act establishes the National Mineral Exploration Trust to fund mineral exploration in the country. The Bill widens the scope of the Trust to also fund the development of mines and minerals.
• Under the Act, captive mines are allowed to sell up to 50 percent of minerals produced in a year, after meeting end-use requirements. The Bill removes the limit on the sale of minerals.
• The Bill allows for a one-time extension of the area under a mining or composite lease.
  • This will be applicable for deep-seated minerals. Deep-seated minerals are minerals which occur at a depth of more than 200 metres from the surface of land.
• The Bill provides for establishing an authority to register and regulate mineral exchanges.
  • The Bill defines mineral exchange as a registered electronic trading platform or marketplace for trading minerals and metals.
  • The central government will frame rules regarding mineral exchanges on matters including:
    • manner of registration
    • levy of fees and other charges
    • prevention of insider trading and market manipulation
    • grievance redressal.

About Saltwater Crocodile:

• It is the largest and heaviest of all living reptiles in the world.
• Scientific Name: Crocodylus porosus
• It is also known as the estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile, marine crocodile, sea crocodile, or informally as saltie.
• It is an opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator.
• Distribution: It is native to saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia.
• Features:
  • The average male is 5 m in length and weighs around 500 kg, while females are significantly smaller, with the average female saltwater crocodile measuring a little under 3 m in length and weighing less than 100 kg.
  • Their coloration varies, typically featuring a dark, greenish-brown hue with lighter underbellies, which helps them blend into their aquatic surroundings.
  • They have thick, armored skin made of tough scales that protect them from potential threats.
  • They are solitary creatures, especially when it comes to adult males.
  • They are highly territorial, with large male saltwater crocodiles often controlling extensive stretches of rivers, estuaries, or coastlines.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Least Concern.

About Pamba River:

• It is the third longest river in the state of Kerala after the Periyar River and the Bharathappuzha River.
• Also called the 'Dakshina Bhageerathi' or the Ganga of Kerala, the significance of the river is associated with the Sabarimala temple.
  • Pilgrims visiting Sabarimala take a dip in the river here before and after trekking the hill.
• Pamba is also called Thriveni Sangam, as it is the meeting point for three rivers-Pamba, Achankovil & Manimala.
• Course:
  • It rises at an altitude of 1650 m in the Pulachimalai Hill on the Peerumedu plateau of the Western Ghats.
  • After traversing a distance of 176 km, it joins the Arabian Sea branching into a number of channels.
• The basin extends over an area of 2235 sq.km.
• The entire catchment area lies in Kerala state.
• The basin is bounded on the east by the Western Ghats and on the west by the Arabian Sea.
• The main tributaries of the river are Kakki Ar, Azhuta Ar, Kakkad Ar, Kallar, Manimala, and Achenkovil.

About Vihar Lake:

• It is a man-made reservoir located near Vihar village on the Mithi River within the grounds of the Borivali National Park, which is also known as Sanjay Gandhi National Park, in North Mumbai, Maharashtra.
• The lake was built from 1856 to 1860 by the British government to overcome the drinking water woes of the people of southern Mumbai.
• It gets its water from the Powai-Kanheri hill ranges in the catchment area.
• It is the largest lake in Mumbai in the Salsette group of islands.
• It is bordered between the Tulsi Lake and the Powai Lake.
• It partly meets the drinking water needs of the South Mumbai region.
• It supplies 3% of the Mumbai city’s water requirement, after filtration at Bhandup, where the large water filtration plant is located.

About Thattekad Bird Sanctuary:

• It is the first bird sanctuary in Kerala, located on the banks of Periyar River.
• Thattekad bird sanctuary is also known as Dr. Salim Ali bird sanctuary, named after Dr Salim Ali, the best known ornithologist in India.
• The sanctuary, which spreads across the foot of western Ghats , was notified in 1983.
• Vegetation: It consists of Tropical Evergreen Forests, Tropical Semi-evergreen forests, Moist Deciduous
• It consists of natural habitats which includes Periyar river, lagoons and marshes formed by Bhootattankettu dam reservoir, tropical semi & evergreen forests of the western Ghats.
• Major peaks in the sanctuary are Thoppimudi and Nyayapillimudi.
• Flora: Myristica dactyloides, Hopea parviflora, Tetrameles mudiflora, eak, Rosewood, Mahagony
• Fauna: It is famous for many endemic and rare birds like Ceylon Frogmouth, Black Bazza, Oriental dwarf kingfisher, Bay owl etc.

About NAVYA Initiative:

• The NAVYA (Nurturing Aspirations through Vocational training for Young Adolescent Girls) aims to empower adolescent girls (AGs) aged 16–18 years in aspirational districts by equipping them with relevant skills for socio-economic independence.
• It is a joint initiative of the Ministry of Skill Development & Entrepreneurship and the Ministry of Women & Child Development.
• Objective of NAVYA Initiative
  • Provide demand-driven vocational training aligned with traditional and non-traditional sectors.
  • Facilitate holistic development through modules on health, nutrition, hygiene, financial literacy, life skills, and legal awareness.
  • Promote employability, self-employment, and forward linkages such as internships, apprenticeships, and job opportunities.
  • Strengthen gender-inclusive skilling and create a safe, supportive training environment.
  • Bridge the gap between education and livelihood, particularly for girls in underserved and remote areas.
• Under the NAVYA initiative, it has been decided to train 3850 adolescent girls under Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana 4.0 (PMKVY 4.0) in non-traditional and modern job roles such as digital marketing, cybersecurity, AI-enabled services, green jobs, and other emerging sectors.
• Further, training in life skills, financial literacy, and digital competence is to be provided to equip them for both current and future workforce demands.
• Under the NAVYA initiative, 19 States and 27 districts have been covered.

About Snow Leopard:

• It is a medium-sized big cat that resides in the rugged terrains of Central and South Asia. It is adapted to living in a cold, mountainous environment. 
• It is known as the ‘ghost of the mountains’.
• Distribution:
  • It prefers steep, rugged terrains with rocky outcrops and ravines and are usually found at an elevation of 3,000-5,000 metres or higher in the Himalayas.
  • They are found in 12 countries, including China, Bhutan, Nepal, India, Pakistan, Russia, and Mongolia.
  • In India, they can be largely found in the high-altitude cold, arid, and rugged terrains of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Features of Snow Leopard:
  • The snow leopard’s pale grey fur is marked with dark rosettes, serving as camouflage against rocky terrains. 
  • The snow leopard reaches a length of about 7 feet (2.1 meters). Almost half of that length is the tail. 
  • The tail helps to provide balance when the cat climbs in mountainous terrain and warmth when the cat sleeps. 
  • The snow leopard is solitary and lives alone except when mating or raising offspring. 
• Conservation status
  • IUCN: Vulnerable
  • CITES: Appendix I 
  • Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972: Schedule I.

About United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees:

• It is a UN Refugee Agency which protects refugees worldwide and facilitates their return home or resettlement.
• It was established by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1950 in the aftermath of the Second World War to help the millions of people who had lost their homes.
• It is a global organization dedicated to saving lives, protecting rights and building a better future for people forced to flee their homes because of conflict and persecution.
• Governance structure
  • It is governed by the UN General Assembly and the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC).
  • The UNHCR Executive Committee approves the agency's biennial programmes and the corresponding budget.
  • These are presented by the High Commissioner, who is appointed by the UN General Assembly.
• Funding: It is funded voluntarily, contributed by governments, private donors, and organisations.
• It was awarded Nobel Peace Prizes in 1954 and 1981.
• It started the Nansen Refugee Award in 1954 for recognition of outstanding service to the cause of refugees, displaced or stateless people.
• Headquarters: Geneva, Switzerland.

About Anna-Chakra:

• It is a supply chain optimisation tool under the Public Distribution System (PDS).
• It is developed in collaboration with the World Food Programme(WFP) and Foundation for Innovation and Technology Transfer (FITT), IIT-Delhi.
• It is spearheaded by the Department of Food Public Distribution.
• Working of Anna Chakra
  • The project leverages advanced algorithms to identify optimal routes and ensure seamless movement of food grains across supply chain nodes. 
  • An operation of this magnitude involves a complex supply chain, relying on multiple stakeholders starting from farmers to Fair Price Shops.
  • This exercise has covered 4.37 Lakhs Fair Price Shops and approx. 6700 warehouses involved in the PDS supply chain.
  • The interstate route optimization tool has been developed for optimization of the PDS movement between the states and it is integrated with the FOIS (Freight Operations Information System) portal of the Railways through Unified Logistics Interface Platform (ULIP).
  • A significant milestone in this effort is the integration of the optimization tool with the PM Gati Shakti platform which now houses geo -locations of FPSs and warehouses across the states.
• Advantages of Anna Chakra
  • It is unique initiative which helps improve the speed and efficiency of the world’s largest food security program providing food safety net to 81 Crore beneficiaries. 
  • Reduces fuel consumption, time, and logistics costs, it also provides environmental benefits of lower carbon footprint due to reduced transportation-related emissions.

About Udyam Sakhi Portal:

• Udyam Sakhi portal was launched by the Ministry of MSME in March 2018 to provide information regarding financial schemes, policies, and programmes of the Ministry of MSME to existing/prospective women entrepreneurs in the MSME sector.
• The portal is a network for nurturing entrepreneurship and creating business models for low-cost products and services in order to empower women and make them self-reliant and self-sufficient.
• The portal helps women to start, build, and grow their businesses.
• The portal accords the following services through its programmatic functions:
  • Entrepreneurship learning tools
  • Incubation facility
  • Training program for fund raising
  • Providing mentors
  • One-on-one investor meet
  • Provide facilities for market survey
  • Learning and development; be it by means of education, information, or technical assistance and training.

About Sliteye Shark:

• It is a small-bodied shark species found in inshore waters throughout the Indo-West Pacific.
• It is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, and the only member of its genus, Loxodon.
• Scientific Name: Loxodon macrorhinus
• Named for its distinctive, slit-like eyes—thought to enhance vision in low-light conditions—the sliteye shark is well adapted to deeper, dimly lit environments as well as clear and shallow waters.
• Distribution: Widespread in tropical waters of the Indian and western Pacific Oceans between 34°N and 30°S off the coasts of Australia, China, Djibouti, Egypt, Eritrea, India, Indonesia, Japan, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Taiwan, Tanzania, and Yemen.
• Features:
  • It is a small shark with a very slender body, a long narrow face, large eyes, and short furrows at the corners of the mouth.
  • It can reach a length of about 95 cm.
  • The teeth are small, with a protruding tip and smooth edges.
  • The ridge between the dorsal fins is absent or rudimentary.
  • The coloration of the Sliteye shark is gray, the belly is white, and the edges of the fins are pale (transparent when alive).
  • The caudal and first dorsal fins have dark edges.
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Near Threatened.

About Sahariya Tribe:

• It is one of the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG) and is among the most disadvantaged and vulnerable population groups in the country.
• The six-lakh population (Census 2011) is spread across Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh and sprinkled in a few other states.
• The Sahariya community is also called by the names Seher, Sair, Savar, Saonar, Sahra,
• Residing in communities with non-Sahariya members, the Sahariyas mostly live in a separate area in the village, which is called ‘Seharana’. It is generally a cluster of houses.
• The houses are made of some stone boulders, and the roofing is also made of stone slabs – locally called Patore. In some villages, mud structures are also constructed.
• In villages, ties to the caste system are very strong, and people belonging to the same caste live in close proximity.
• They live in small joint families.
• Language: While the Sahariyas have lost their original language, they speak the local dialects of the regions they inhabit.
• Religion:
  • The Sahariya practice their traditional ethnic religions.
  • However, they are also aware of Hindu values and use them in defining their own identity.
• They are known for their dance, the Saharia Swang, which is performed during the month of Holi.
• • The dance is performed to the beats of the dhol, nagari, and matki.
  • It features a male dressed in female attire who dances around the male performers.
• Livelihood:
  • Predominantly forest dwellers, they live in remote locations and make their living from forest produce, additionally cultivating small plots of land and work as landless labourers.
  • They are particularly skilled in making catechu from khair trees.
  • To supplement their meagre income, seasonal migration is very common in the tribe.

About Rubella:

• It is a highly contagious viral infection best known by its distinctive red rash.
• It's also called German measles or three-day measles.
• Rubella isn't the same as measles, but the two illnesses share some signs and symptoms, such as the red rash.
• Rubella is caused by a different virus than measles, and rubella isn't as infectious or as severe as measles.
• Rubella is caused by the Rubella virus, an enveloped, single-stranded RNA virus, different from the measles virus.
• Transmission:
  • The Rubella virus spreads from person to person when you cough, sneeze, or touch surfaces with the virus on them.
  • It can also spread from a pregnant woman to the fetus.
  • You can be contagious with rubella without symptoms.
• Symptoms:
  • This infection may cause mild or no symptoms in most people.
  • The main symptom of rubella is a spotty rash that starts on the face or behind the ears and spreads to the neck and body.
  • The rash takes 2 to 3 weeks to appear after getting rubella.
  • Rubella can cause serious problems for unborn babies whose mothers become infected during pregnancy.
  • When a woman is infected with the rubella virus early in pregnancy, she has a 90% chance of passing the virus on to her fetus.
  • This can cause the death of the fetus, or it may cause Congenital Rubella Syndrome (CRS). Infants with CRS may excrete the virus for a year or more.
  • Children with CRS can suffer hearing impairments, eye and heart defects, and other lifelong disabilities, including autism, diabetes mellitus, and thyroid dysfunction.
• Prevention:
  • The measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine is safe and highly effective in preventing rubella.
  • The vaccine provides lifelong protection against rubella.
  • Treatment:
  • There are currently no medications available to treat rubella.
  • Mild symptoms can be managed with bed rest and medicines for fever.

About Minimum Public Shareholding (MPS):

• The Minimum Public Shareholding (MPS) rule is a regulatory requirement laid out by SEBI under the Securities Contracts (Regulation) Rules, 1957, and reinforced by the Listing Obligations and Disclosure Requirements (LODR) Regulations.
• It is applicable to all listed companies in India.
• As per these rules, all listed companies must ensure that at least 25% of their total issued and paid-up equity share capital is held by public shareholders—i.e., non-promoters and non-promoter group entities.
• Where promoters are holding more than 75%, they have to mandatorily divest additional shares to the public to comply with the MPS rule.
  • Such stake reduction could be done either by placing shares with institutions or by issuing rights shares to dilute their holdings.
• The objective is to:
  • Enhance liquidity in the market
  • Promote fair price discovery
  • Ensure broader participation and corporate governance
• Newly listed companies are expected to meet this requirement within three years from the date of listing.
• For issuers with a post-issue market cap of over ₹1 trillion, the deadline for 25% MPS is five years.
• If the public shareholding falls below 25% at any time, such company shall bring the public shareholding to 25% within a maximum period of 12 months from the date of such fall.

About Palmyra Palm Tree:

• It is commonly named as sugar palm, or toddy palm or fan palm.
• It is a native of tropical Africa but cultivated and naturalized throughout India.
• In India, it is planted as a windbreak on the plains.
• Required Climatic Conditions
  • Soil: It exhibits adaptability to a wide range of soil types, including arid and wastelands. They thrive particularly well in sandy soil, red soil, black soil, and river alluvium.
  • Rainfall: These palms are also suited for semi-arid regions with an annual rainfall of less than 750 mm.
  • They can grow at altitudes from sea level up to 800 meters.
  • Palmyra is mainly propagated through seeds and there is no vegetative method available for its propagation
• Benefits of Palmyra Palm Tree:
  • It is used as a natural shelter by birds, bats and wild animals.
  • The chief product of the palmyra is the sweet sap (toddy) obtained by tapping the tip of the inflorescence.
  • The toddy ferments naturally within a few hours after sunrise and is locally popular as a beverage.
  • Palmyra palm jaggery (gur) is much more nutritious than crude cane sugar.
  • Traditionally, the Indian 'Nadar' community are the people who make their living from this tree using its wood, fruits, sap, stems, petioles and leaves to process a variety of food products, beverages, furniture, building materials, and handicrafts.

About Periodic Labour Force Survey:

• It gives estimates of key employment and unemployment Indicators like the Labour Force Participation Rate (LFPR), Worker Population Ratio (WPR), Unemployment Rate (UR), etc.
• The sample design of the Periodic Labour Survey (PLFS) has been revamped from January 2025.
• As part of revamping of the sample design monthly rotational panel scheme has been implemented for both rural and urban areas wherein each selected household is visited four times in four consecutive months
• The redesigned PLFS aims to achieve the following objectives:
  • To generate key employment and unemployment indicators every month for both rural and urban areas at the all-India level under the Current Weekly Status (CWS).
  • To extend the Quarterly PLFS results to rural areas, thereby producing quarterly estimates of labour market indicators for both rural and urban India under the CWS framework.
  • To provide annual estimates of key employment and unemployment indicators in both usual status (ps+ss) and Current Weekly Status (CWS) for rural as well as urban areas.
  • This survey is conducted by the National Sample Survey (NSO), working under the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI).

About e-Jagriti Platform:

• e-Jagriti is a flagship initiative by the Department of Consumer Affairs, Government of India.
• It is aimed at strengthening the consumer dispute redressal system across the country.
• The project focuses on the computerization and networking of all Consumer Commissions at the national, state, and district levels to ensure transparency, efficiency, and speedy resolution of consumer disputes.
• Features of e-Jagriti Platform
  • e-Jagriti enables consumers to file complaints, track case statuses, and access judgments online.
  • The platform plays a vital role in digitizing consumer commissions and empowering citizens by providing easy access to legal remedies.
  • It provides simple, fast and a more cost-effective consumer disputes redressal software solution at all levels.
  • It is envisaged to integrate consumer grievance platforms, namely, Online Case Monitoring System (OCMS), E-Daakhil, NCDRC Case Monitoring System, CONFONET website, mediation application, in a single platform.  
  • It has case filing, online fee payment, case monitoring modules for seamless disposal of cases by all the Commissions, has Smart search facility on archived consumer complaints / cases / judgements using AI technology for metadata and keyword creation, and Voice-to-text conversion of judgements, case history and other details using AI / ML technology.
  • With its user-friendly interface and real-time updates, e-Jagriti ensures accountability, reduces paperwork, and fosters a more transparent and accessible justice system for consumers nationwide.

About Sustainable Aviation Fuel:

• It is a biofuel, also known as bio-jet fuel produced from sustainable feedstocks.
• It has chemistry similar to conventional aviation turbine fuel (ATF) or jet fuel, which is derived from crude oil.
• This means that existing aircraft engines can easily use the SAF-ATF blend.
• It is made from renewable biomass and waste resources have the potential to deliver the performance of petroleum-based jet fuel. 
• Various Indian airlines have already operated successfully a few test and demonstration flights using jet fuel doped with SAF in various proportions.
• Production: It can be produced from a number of sources (feedstock) including waste oil and fats, green and municipal waste and non-food crops.
• It can also be produced synthetically via a process that captures carbon directly from the air.
• Significance of Sustainable Aviation Fuel
  • Its carbon footprint is significantly lower than aviation turbine fuel (ATF).
  • It is ‘sustainable’ because the raw feedstock does not compete with food crops or water supplies, or is responsible for forest degradation. 
  • It remains the major mature and viable pathway to decarbonise the aviation sector. At the same time, SAF only accounts for 0.3% of the current fuel use for aviation.

About Sakura Science Programme:

• It is the prestigious Japan-Asia Youth Exchange Program in Science—better known as the Sakura Science Programme.
• It was launched globally in 2014, aims to expand scientific curiosity amongst youth and encourage international collaboration.
• India joined the Sakura Programme in 2016.
• It is implemented by the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST).
• The initiative offers young learners a chance to explore cutting-edge science and immerse themselves in Japanese culture.
• Under this programme, students are invited for short-term visits to Japan, providing them with the opportunity to experience Japan’s cutting-edge science and technology as well as its rich culture.
• For the upcoming Sakura Programme 2025, JST has invited participants from six other countries Egypt, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa and Zambia.
• The Sakura Science Program's objectives include:
  • To support the development of talented human resources from overseas who have the potential to contribute to innovation in science and technology.
  • To accelerate international brain circulation.
  • To promote continuous collaboration, cooperation and interaction between Japanese educational and research institutes and those overseas.
  • To strengthen good relationships between Japan and other countries and regions that can encourage diplomacy in science and technology.